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Employment Outlook Earnings and Working address systems. Some service Conditions technicians specialize in repairing The demand for shoe repairers is one kind of equipment-for examnot expected to change significantly Information from limited ple, television sets or car radios. through the mid-1980's. As innumber of employers indicate that Equipment may operate uncomes rise, many people will buy many shoe repairers earned satisfactorily break down new shoes rather than have old ones between $2.90 and $4 an hour in completely because of faulty tubes fixed. Cushioned-soled shoes and 1974. Inexperienced trainees or transistors, poor connections, or other casual foot-wear which generally earned between $2 other problems. Service technicians , usually are not practical to repair and $2.50 an hour. Some highly check and evaluate each possible ; may also limit the demand for these skilled repairers, including cause of trouble; they begin by workers. managers of shoe repair shops, checking for the most common Nevertheless, hundreds of job earned more than $300 a week. cause-tube or module failure. In openings are expected each year Shoe repairers generally work 8 other routine checks, they look for because of the need to replace ex- hours a day, 5 days a week. The loose or broken connections and perienced shoe repairers who workweek for the self-employed is for parts that are charred retire, die, or leave the field for often longer, sometimes 10 hours a burned. other reasons. Replacement needs day, 6 days a week. Although shoe When routine checks do not are relatively high because shoe repair shops are busiest during the locate the trouble, technicians use repairers are, on the average, older spring and fall, work is steady with test equipment, such as voltmeters, than workers in other occupations. no seasonal layoffs. oscilloscopes, and signal generaBeginners will find most opportu- Working conditions generally are tors, to check suspected circuits. nities in metropolitan areas. Jobs good in large repair shops, but small For example, they may measure may be scarce in small communities shops may be crowded and noisy voltages or wave forms in a televibecause many of the shoe shops are and have poor light or ventilation. sion set until an unusual or irregular operated solely by owners and do Strong odors from leather goods, measurement indicates the faulty not need employees. dyes, and stains may be present. part. Once the cause of trouble is Since about one-half of all shoe The work is not strenuous, but it found, they replace faulty parts and repairers are self-employed and a does require stamina, because make adjustments, such as focusing large proportion of them are ap- repairers must stand much of the and converging the picture or corproaching retirement, opportunities time. recting the color balance. should be very good for ex Technicians who make customer perienced repairers who wish to Sources of Additional service calls carry tubes, modules, open their own shops. Information and other parts that can be easily In recent years, employment of replaced in the customer's home. shoe repairers has declined, largely Information about work opportubecause the number of young peo nities may be available from the Radios, portable televisions, and local office of the State employple entering the trade have not been other small equipment usually are great enough to replace the ex- ment service, as well as shoe shops repaired in service shops. Large television sets also are repaired in perienced repairers who have in the community. shops when the trouble must be retired or stopped working for located with complex test equipother reasons. Factors contributing ment. to this are the unglamorous nature TELEVISION AND RADIO Service technicians use of the work and the relatively low starting pay for trainees. Also, SERVICE TECHNICIANS screwdrivers, pliers, wire cutters, soldering irons, and other handyoung job seekers probably over (D.O.T. 720.281) tools. They refer to wiring diagrams look some merits of the trade: Few and service manuals that show contrades offer better opportunities for Nature of the Work nections and provide information self-employment; earnings of self on how to locate problems and employed shoe repairers compare Television and radio service make repairs. favorably with those of workers in technicians repair a large and growmany other skilled occupations; ing number of electronic products, Places of Employment and the work is steady because the of which television sets and radios shoe repair business is not very sen- are by far the most numerous. They About 135,000 people worked as sitive to changes in economic con- also repair stereo components, tape radio and television service techniditions. recorders, intercoms, and public cians in 1974. About one-third of Page 3
National Automatic Merchandising Associa Florida, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, tion, 7 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, III. Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, 60603. North Carolina, North Dakota, license, repairers must pass an exWATCH REPAIRERS amination designed to test their skill with tools and their knowledge (D.O.T. 715.281) of watch construction and repair. Watch repairers in all States, Nature of the Work however, can demonstrate their Watch repairers (also called degree of competence by passing watchmakers) clean, repair, and certification examinations given by adjust watches, clocks, and other the American Watchmakers Intimepieces. When a watch is not stitute. Successful examinees working properly, repairers use receive the title of either Certified tweezers, screwdrivers, and other Watchmaker or Certified Master tools to remove the watch from its Watchmaker, depending on their case and disassemble the move proficiency. Annual voluntary exment. With the aid of a special magWatch repairer uses eye loupe to exam aminations covering new phases of nifying glass called a loupe, they ine watch movemont. watchmaking also are offered, and carefully examine each part of the those who pass are given a plaque mechanism. Although jewelry stores and of recognition. Repairers may replace the main- repair shops are found in many A person planning a career as a spring and other parts of the wind- small towns, most are in large com watch repairer must be willing to sit ing mechanism, adjust improperly mercial centers. Only a small for long periods and work with a fitted wheels, and replace broken amount of watch manufacturing is minimum of supervision. The hands or a cracked watch crystal. done in this country, mostly in Con- precise and delicate nature of the They clean and oil parts before necticut and New York. work requires patience and concenreassembling the watch and testing tration. Good visual depth percepit for accuracy. Training, Other Qualifications, tion and eye-hand coordination In addition to handtools, watch and Advancement helps in working with tiny parts. repairers use timing and cleaning Beginners who have sufficient machines. They use electrical me Most people learn the trade in funds may open their own watch ters when repairing electronic watch repair schools; others learn repair shops, but the usual practice watches to make sure that circuits on the job or through formal ap- is to work for an experienced watch work properly. prenticeship. repairer before starting one's own Watch repairers often own jewel There generally are no specific business. Watch repairers may also ry stores, and may do minor jewelry educational requirements for en- open their own jewelry stores; howrepair and sell watches, jewelry, sil trance into any of the approximate- ever, these stores require a much verware, and other items. They also ly 40 watch repair schools although greater financial investment than most students are high school grad- do repair shops. may hire and supervise salesclerks, other watch repairers, and jewelers; uates. Courses usually last from 18 arrange window displays; purchase months to 24 months for full-time Employment Outlook students. Students learn to take goods to be sold; and perform other managerial duties. apart and reassemble various kinds Employment of watch repairers is of watch and clock movements, expected to grow at a slower rate Places of Employment diagnose problems, make and ad- than the average for all occupations just individual parts, and use and through the mid-1980's. Although About 17,000 persons worked as care for tools and machines. Some more watches will be sold as popuwatch repairers in 1974. One-third schools offer courses on repairing lation and incomes rise, many will were self-employed. Most of the unusual types of timepieces, such as be pin-lever types which cost little remainder worked for jewelry chronographs and timers. Most more to replace than repair. Constores. Others worked for repair schools require students to furnish sequently employment is not exshops or for factories that made their own handtools. pected to keep pace with growth in watches, clocks, or other precision The following States require the number of watches. Most job timing instruments. watch repairers to obtain a license: openings will result from the need Page 4
gum disorders, and preserve teeth they grow older, and a considerable knowledge and skill. Some that might otherwise be extracted. number continue in part-time prac assistants make casts of the teeth However, since the preserved teeth tice well beyond the usual retire- and mouth from impressions taken will need care in the future, these ment age. by the dentist. These casts are used measures may increase rather than by dentists and technicians to make decrease the demand for dental Sources of Additional dentures. Some assistants apply care. New techniques, equipment, Information medicine to the teeth and oral tisand drugs, as well as the expanded sue, remove excess cement used in use of dental hygienists, assistants, Persons who wish to practice in a the filling process from surfaces of and laboratory technicians should given State should obtain the the teeth, and place rubber dams on enable individual dentists to care requirements for licensure from the the teeth to isolate them for infor more patients. However, these board of dental examiners of that dividual treatment. Some dental developments are not expected to State. Lists of State boards and of assistants manage the office and aroffset the need for more dentists. accredited dental schools, as well as range and confirm appointments, information on dentistry as receive patients, keep treatment career, is available from: Earnings and Working records, send bills, receive payConditions American Dental Association, Council on ments, and order dental supplies Dental Education, 211 East Chicago and materials. During the first year or two of Ave., Chicago, III. 60611. The work of the dental assistant practice, dentists often earn little American Association of Dental Schools, should not be confused with that of 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., more than the minimum needed to the dental hygienist who scales and Washington, D.C. 20036. cover expenses, but their earnings cleans the teeth. (See statement on contact Students should the usually rise rapidly as their practice Dental Hygienists elsewhere in the director of student financial aid at develops. Specialists generally earn Handbook.) considerably more than general the school they attend to get infor mation about Federal loans and practitioners. The average income scholarships. Places of Employment of dentists in 1974 was about $38,000 a year, according to the Nearly 120,000 persons, practilimited information available. In the cally all of them women, worked as Federal Government, new gradu dental assistants in 1974; about 1 ates of dental schools could expect DENTAL ASSISTANTS out of 10 worked part time. to start at $15,481 a year in late Most dental assistants work in (D.O.T. 079.378) 1974. private dental offices, either for inLocation is one of the major fac dividual dentists or for groups of Nature of the Work tors affecting the income of dentists dentists. Many of the remainder who open their own offices. For ex- Dental assistants work with work in dental schools, hospital ample, in high-income urban areas, dentists as they examine and treat dental departments, State and local dental services are in great demand; patients. The assistant makes the public health departments, however, practice can be patients comfortable in the dental private clinics. The Federal developed most quickly in small chair, prepares them for treatment, Government employs dental towns, where new dentists easily and obtains their dental records. assistants, chiefly in the Public become known and where they may The assistant hands the dentist the Health Service, the. Veterans Adface less competition from proper instruments and materials ministration, and the Armed established practitioners. Although and keeps the patient's mouth clear Forces. the income from practice in small by using suction or other devices. towns may rise rapidly at first, over Dental assistants prepare materials Training, Other Qualifications, the long run the level of earnings, for making impressions and restora and Advancement like the cost of living, may be lower tions and expose X-rays and than it is in larger communities. process dental X-ray film Most dental assistants learn their Most dental offices are open 5 directed by the dentist. They also skills on the job. An increasing days a week and some dentists have provide oral health instruction and number, however, are trained in evening hours. Dentists usually prepare instruments for steriliza- formal post-high school programs. work between 40 and 45 hours a tion. About 260 such programs were acweek, although many spend more Dental assistants perform credited by the Council on Dental than 50 hours a week in the office. variety of duties that do not require Education of the American Dental Dentists often work fewer hours as the dentist's professional Association (ADA) in 1974. Some Page 5
In addition to job openings Other material on opportunities Places of Employment created by growth in the demand for dental assistants is available for dental assistants, thousands of from: Nearly 23,000 persons, most of assistants also will be required each them women, worked as dental hyDivision of Dental Health, Public Health Seryear to replace those who leave the vice, U.S. Department of Health, Edu- gienists in 1974. Many work part eld. cation, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. time. Most work in private dental 20201. offices. Public health agencies, Earnings and Working school systems, industrial plants, Conditions clinics, hospitals, dental hygiene schools, and the Federal GovernSalary depends largely on the DENTAL HYGIENISTS ment are other sources of employassistant's education and ex ment for dental hygienists. Some perience, the duties and responsi (D.O.T. 078.368) who are graduates of bachelor's bilities attached to the particular degree programs are commissioned job, and geographic location. Most Nature of the Work officers in the Armed Forces. dental assistants earned annual Dental hygienists are oral health salaries between $5,200 and $7,800 clinicians and educators who aid in 1974, according to the limited Training and Other the public in developing and maindata available. Qualifications taining good oral health. As memIn the Federal Government, ex bers of the dental health team, Dental hygienists must be perience and the amount and type dental hygienists may perform licensed. To get a license, a canof education determine entrance preventive and therapeutic services didate must be a graduate of an acsalaries. In late 1974, a high school under the supervision of the dentist. credited dental hygiene school, exgraduate who had 6 months of Specific responsibilities of the hy- cept in Alabama, and pass both a general experience started at gienist vary, depending on the law written and clinical examination. In $6,764 a year; graduates of an of the State where the hygienist is 1974, candidates in 49 States and ADA-approved 1-year training pro employed, but may include: remov- the District of Columbia could gram who had an additional year of ing deposits and stains from pa- complete part of the State licensing general experience could expect to tients' teeth; providing instructions requirements by passing a written start at $7,596 a year. for patient self-care, and dietetic examination given by the National Although the 40-hour workweek and nutritional counseling; and the Board of Dental Examiners. prevails for dental assistants, the application of medicine for the In order to practice in a different schedule is likely to include work prevention of tooth decay. They State, a licensed dental hygienist on Saturday. A 2- or 3-week paid take medical and dental histories, take medical and dental histories, must pass the State's examination. vacation is common. Some dentists expose and develop dental X-ray However, at least 19 States grant provide sick leave and other films, make model impressions for licenses, without further examinabenefits. Dental assistants who study, and prepare other diagnostic tion, to dental hygienists already work for the Federal Government aids for use by the dentist. Pain con- licensed in certain other States. receive the same employee benefits trol and restorative procedures also In 1975, 163 schools of dental as other Federal workers. are handled often by dental hy- hygiene in the United States were Dental assistants work in a wellgienists. accredited by the American Dental lighted, clean environment. They Dental hygienists who work in Association. Most programs grant a must be careful in handling X-ray school systems examine children's certificate or an associate degree; and other equipment. teeth, assist dentists in determining others lead to a bachelor's degree. the dental treatment needed, and Some institutions offer both types Sources of Additional report their findings to parents. of programs. Twelve schools offer Information They also clean teeth and give in- master's degree programs. Information about career oppor struction on correct mouth care. Completion of associate tunities, scholarships, accredited Some help to develop classroom or degree program is sufficient for dental assistant programs, including assembly programs on oral health. dental hygienists who want to practhe correspondence program, and Dental hygienists employed by tice in a private dental office. In requirements for certification is health agencies work in dental order to do research, teach, and available from: clinics. A few assist in research pro- work in public or school health pro jects. Those having advanced train- grams, baccalaureate degree American Dental Assistants Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, m. ing may teach in schools of dental usually is required. 60611. hygiene. The minimum requirement for Page 6
schools of optometry is expected to loan funds offered by various State tology, obstetrics and gynecology, be adequate to fill the positions associations, societies, and institu- pathology, proctology, radiology, made available by employment tions are available from: and surgery. growth and the need to replace op American Optometric Association, 7000 tometrists who die and retire. Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119. Places of Employment Employment of optometrists is Federal Health Professions Loans expected to grow about as fast as are available for optometric stu About 14,500 osteopathic physithe average for all occupations. An dents who meet certain financial cians were practicing in the United increase in the total population, needs requirements. For informa States in 1974; nearly 9 percent especially in the groups most likely tion on this financial aid and on were women. Nearly all osteopathic to need glasses-older people and required preoptometry physicians were in private practice. courses, white-collar workers is the main contact individual Less than 5 percent had full-time optometry factor contributing to the expected schools. The Board of Optometry in salaried positions in osteopathic growth in the occupation. Greater the capital of each State can supply hospitals and colleges, private inrecognition of the importance of a list of optometry schools ap dustry, or government agencies. good vision for efficiency at school proved by that State, as well as Osteopathic physicians are and work, and the possibility that licensing requirements. located chiefly in those States that more persons will have health in have osteopathic hospital facilities. surance to cover optometric ser In 1974, almost half of all vices, also should increase the de osteopathic physicians were in mand for optometric services. Michigan, Pennsylvania, New JerOSTEOPATHIC sey, Ohio, and Missouri. TwentyEarnings and Working PHYSICIANS three States and the District of Conditions Columbia each had fewer than 50 (D.O.T. 071.108) osteopathic physicians. More than In 1974, net earnings of new op half of all general practitioners are tometry graduates averaged about Nature of the Work located in towns and cities having $13,500, while experienced optometrists averaged about $30,000 fewer than 50,000 people; spe Osteopathic physicians diagnose annually. Optometrists working for and treat diseases or maladies of the cialists, however, practice mainly in the Federal Government earned an human body. They are particularly large cities. average of $17,500 a year in late concerned about problems involv1974. Incomes vary greatly, deing the muscles or bones. One of Training and Other pending upon location, specializathe basic treatments or therapies Qualifications tion, and other factors. Op used by osteopathic physicians centometrists entering solo practice ters on manipulating these systems A license to practice as an begin at approximately the same in with the hands. Osteopathic physi- osteopathic physician is required in come level as those entering as cians also use surgery, drugs, and all all States. To obtain a license, a sociateship or group practice. How other accepted methods of medical ever, after several care. years, optometrists in associateship or part Most osteopathic physicians are nership practice may earn substan “family doctors" who engage in tially more than their solo practi general practice. These physicians tioner counterparts. usually see patients in their offices, Independent practitioners can set make house calls, and treat patients their own work schedule. Some in osteopathic and some city and work over 40 hours a week, includ county hospitals. Some doctors of ing Saturday. Since the work is not osteopathy teach, do research, or physically strenuous, optometrists write and edit scientific books and often can continue to practice after journals. the normal retirement age. In recent years, specialization has increased. In 1974, about 25 perSources of Additional cent were practicing specialties inInformation cluding internal medicine, neurolo gy and psychiatry, ophthalmology, Information on optometry as a pediatrics, anesthesiology, physical career and a list of scholarships and medicine and rehabilitation, derma Page 7
PODIATRISTS time salaried positions worked sense, congeniality, and a sense of (D.O.T. 079.108) mainly in hospitals, podiatric col- responsibility are additional assets leges, or for other podiatrists. The in the profession. 1 Veterans Administration and public Most newly licensed podiatrists 2 Nature of the Work health departments employ set up their own practices. Some Podiatrists diagnose and treat podiatrists on either a full- or part- purchase established practices, or foot diseases and deformities. They time basis. Others serve as commis- obtain salaried positions to gain the perform surgery, fit corrective sioned officers in the Armed experience and money needed to devices, and prescribe drugs, physi- Forces. begin their own. cal therapy, and proper shoes. To Training, Other Qualifications, help in diagnoses, they take X-rays and Advancement Employment Outlook and perform or prescribe blood and other pathological tests. Among the All States and the District of Opportunities for graduates to conditions podiatrists treat Columbia require a license for the establish new practices, as well as to corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown practice of podiatry. To qualify for enter salaried positions, should be toenails, skin and nail diseases, a license, an applicant must gradu- favorable through the 1970's. deformed toes, and arch disabili- ate from an accredited program in a Through the mid-1980's, employties. They refer patients to medical college of podiatric medicine and ment of podiatrists is expected to doctors whenever the feet show pass a State board examination. grow about as fast as the average symptoms of medical disorders af- Three States-Michigan, New Jer- for all occupations as a result of fecting other parts of the body, sey, and Rhode Island—also require greater demand for health services 21 such as arthritis, diabetes, or heart applicants to serve a 1-year intern- by an expanding population, pardisease. ship in a hospital or clinic after ticularly the growing number of Some podiatrists specialize in graduation. Three-fourths of the older people. This age group, the one needing the most foot care, is foot surgery, orthopedics (bone, States grant licenses without further muscle, and joint disorders), examination to podiatrists licensed entitled to certain podiatrists' serpodopediatrics (children's foot ail- by another State. vices under Medicare. Furtherments), or podogeriatrics (foot Applicants to the six colleges of more, the trend toward providing problems of the elderly). However, podiatric medicine must have preventive foot care for children is most provide all types of foot care. completed at least 2 years of col- increasing. More podiatrists also bi lege including courses in English, will be needed to furnish services in Places of Employment chemistry, biology or zoology, hospitals, extended care facilities, physics, and mathematics. About and public health programs. About 7,500 persons practiced 90 percent of all applicants have a podiatry in 1974, 6 percent of them bachelor's degree. Earnings and Working women. Most podiatrists practice in The first 2 years in podiatry Conditions large cities. Those who had full- school include classroom instruc Experience and the income level tion and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, bac. and location of the community served have a great effect on teriology, chemistry, pathology, physiology, and pharmacology. earnings of individual podiatrists. During the final 2 years, students Those in practice between 1 and 3 obtain clinical experience. The years earned an average net income degree of Doctor of Podiatric of about $20,000 in 1974, accordMedicine (D.P.M.) is awarded ing to the limited available informa tion. Net incomes of podiatrists 1 upon graduation. Additional educa- with from 3 to 6 years of practice The workweek is generally 40 are available for needy students to hours, and they may set their hours to suit their practice. Sources of Additional Young people planning a career Information in podiatry should have scientific aptitude and manual dexterity, and Information on license requirelike detailed work. A good business ments in a particular State is availa Page 8
ployed by the Federal Government rays. They also sterilize and clean a growing number are trained in received $5,996 a year in late 1974, instruments and perform routine programs offered in vocational inbut they could advance to as much tasks such as preparation of pa- stitutes and junior colleges. Other as $11,047 a year. tients for examination, medical medical assistants learn their skills EEG technicians in hospitals treatment, and minor office sur- in adult education courses provided receive the same benefits as other gery. by postsecondary schools. hospital personnel, including Medical assistants also perform a Applicants for on-the-job or posthospitalization, vacation, and sick variety of secretarial and adminis- secondary school training usually leave benefits. Some institutions trative jobs. They keep patients' need a high school education or the may provide tuition assistance or medical records, fill out medical equivalent. High school courses in free courses, pension programs, and insurance forms, handle cor- mathematics, health, biology, typuniforms, and parking. respondence, schedule appoint- ing, bookkeeping, and office pracEEG technicians generally work ments, answer the telephone, and tices are helpful. a 40-hour week with little overtime, greet patients. Along with other of- Most junior college programs last although some hospitals require a fice duties, they transcribe dictation 2 years and lead to an associate standby emergency service after and handle the bookkeeping and degree; the others are 1-year prohours, weekends, and holidays. billing and collection. grams or the equivalent, and graduMedical assistants also may ar- ates receive a diploma. Currently Sources of Additional range instruments and equipment in there are 88 programs approved by Information the examining room, check office the Council on Medical Education and laboratory supplies, and main of the American Medical AssociaLocal hospitals can supply infor tain the waiting, consulting, and exmation about employment opportu tion (AMA). The curriculum in amination rooms in a neat and or these programs consists of courses nities. Additional information is derly condition. in biology, anatomy and physiology, available from: typing, transcription, accounting, American Hospital Association, 840 North Places of Employment and medical terminology. Students Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, III. 60611. For information on registration, More than 220,000 people, most also receive supervised clinical ex perience and learn laboratory contact: of them women, worked as medical techniques, use of medical maassistants in 1974. Most worked in Ms. Lee Berger, R. EEG T., Registrar of chines, administrative and clinical A.B.R.E.T., EEG Laboratory, Universi the offices of physicians in private ty Hospitals, 225 Dickenson St., San practice. procedures, and office practices. Others worked in The American Association of Diego, Calif. 92103. hospitals and medical clinics. Medical Assistants (AAMA) sponTraining, Other Qualifications, sors a certification program and its and Advancement certifying board awards certificates to medical assistants who pass a MEDICAL ASSISTANTS Most medical assistants receive comprehensive comprehensive written examina(D.O.T. 079.368) their training on the job. However, tion, have at least a high school education or its equivalent, and 2 years of experience in the field. Nature of the Work Certification is not a license and is Medical assistants help physi not required for AAMA membercians examine and treat patients ship; however, physicians usually and perform the administrative consider Certified Medical tasks required to keep an office Assistants (CMA's) to be highly running smoothly. qualified assistants. In helping physicians examine pa The American Medical tients, medical assistants may check Technologists register medical weight, height, temperature, and assistants who pass a written exblood pressure, and perform simple amination and have completed a 9laboratory tests. In helping with to 12-month course from an treatment, they instruct patients credited school. Currently over 60 about medication and self-treat schools are accredited by the Acment at home. Some may give in crediting Bureau of Medical jections, apply bandages, take elec Laboratory Schools. The Retrocardiograms, and assist with X gistered Medical Assistant (RMA) Page 9
is recognized as competent in the perienced medical assistants, and assistants. They perform tests unde: field. from $140 to $180 for experienced the direction of pathologists Persons who want to become assistants, according to the limited (physicians who diagnose the medical assistants should get along information available. The salaries causes and nature of disease) and well with people. They also should of beginners depend on their train- other physicians, or scientists who be thorough, accurate, dependable, ing and other qualifications. Work- specialize in clinical chemistry and conscientious. ers with post-high school training microbiology, or the other biologiNot every 4-year college will ac- generally receive higher starting cal sciences. Medical laboratory cept all junior college credits. salaries than those without any workers analyze the blood, tissues, Therefore, students who plan to training and fluids in the human body by continue their education should at- Medical assistants usually work a using precision instruments such as tend a junior college whose credits 40-hour week. Their hours, how- microscopes and automatic are accepted by the 4-year college ever, may be irregular. They may analyzers. they hope to attend. work evenings and on Saturdays for Medical technologists, who equivalent time off during week require 4 years of postsecondary Employment Outlook days. training, perform complicated chemical, microscopic, and bacEmployment opportunities for Sources of Additional teriological tests. These tests may medical assistants, particularly for Information include chemical tests to detergraduates of accredited junior col blood mine, for example, the lege programs, are expected to be General information on a career cholesterol level, or microscopic excellent through the mid-1980's. as a medical assistant and on the examination of the blood to detect Employment of medical assis- certification program is available from: the presence of diseases such as leutants is expected to grow faster kemia. Technologists microscopithan the average for all occupations American Association of Medical Assistants, cally examine other body fluids, because of the projected rapid in- One East Wacker Dr., Suite 1510, crease in the number of physicians Chicago, III. 60601. make cultures of body fluid or tis A list of accredited private in patient care. The growing com samples to determine the schools and information on the re presence of bacteria, parasites, or plexity of medical services, comgistration program are available other micro-organisms; and analyze bined with the increasing volume of from: the samples for chemical content or paper work, also will contribute to reaction. They also may type and the demand for medical assistants. American Medical Technologists, 710 Hig cross-match blood samples. The need for medical gins Rd., Park Ridge, III. 60068. assistants also is related to the de For information on training pro Technologists in small laborato ries often perform many types of mand for medical care services in grams for medical assistants, con tests. Those in large laboratories general. Generating this demand is tact: usually specialize in areas such as a growing population with an in- American Medical Association Council on microbiology, parasitology, creasing proportion of older people Medical Education, 535 North Dearwho require more medical atten born St., Chicago, III. 60610. biochemistry, blood banking, hetion, and expansion in coverage matology (the study of blood cells), and nuclear medical technology under prepaid insurance programs, (the use of radioactive isotopes to including Medicare and Medicaid, help detect diseases). that enable more people to afford MEDICAL LABORATORY Most medical technologists conhospital and medical care. WORKERS In addition to openings resulting duct tests related to the examina tion and treatment of patients and from growth of the occupation, (D.O.T. 078.128, .168, .281, and may be called on to display inde .381) many jobs will become available pendent judgment. Some do each year because of the need to research, Nature of the Work replace workers who die, retire, or develop laboratory leave the occupation for other techniques, teach, or perform ad Laboratory tests play an impor- ministrative duties. reasons. tant part in the detection, diagnosis, Medical laboratory technicians, and treatment of many diseases. who generally require 2 years of Earnings and Working Medical laboratory workers, often Conditions postsecondary training, perform a called clinical laboratory workers, wide range of tests and laboratory In 1974, weekly salaries generally include three levels: medical procedures that require a high level ranged from $100 to $140 for inex- technologists, technicians, and of skill but not the technical Page 10
courses in X-ray technology offered Employment Outlook and other benefits are comparable by vocational or technical schools. to those covering other workers in Employment in the field of Programs vary in length from 24 the same organization. months to 3 or 4 years. In addition, radiologic technology is expected There are potential radiation about 42 schools award hazards in this field; however, these bachelor's degree in radiologic for all occupations through the mid hazards have been greatly reduced technology While employers 1980's as X-ray equipment is in by the use of safety devices such as generally pay graduates of creasingly used to diagnose and instruments that measure radiation bachelor's degree programs the treat diseases. The demand for exposure, lead aprons, gloves, and same starting salaries as those of 2. radiologic technologists also will in other shieldings. and 3-year programs, there is more crease as prepaid medical programs potential for promotion for these extend medical care to wider seg Sources of Additional holding the baccalaureate degree. It ments of the population. Part-time Information is advantageous for those planning workers will find the best opportuto be teachers or administrators in nities in physicians' offices and For additional information about this field to pursue the bachelor's clinics where full-time radiologic programs and careers in radiologic and master's degrees as prepara services usually are not required. technology, write: the Although demand tion. for The American Society of Radiologic should All schools accept only high radiologic technologists Technologists, 500 North Michigan school graduates. Courses Ave., Suite 836, Chicago, III. 60611. in continue to be strong, the number mathematics, physics, chemistry, of graduates of AMA-approved The American Registry of Radiologic biology, and typing are helpful. programs in this field also is ex- Technologists, 2600 Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, Minn. 55405. X-ray technology programs in pected to grow rapidly during the clude courses in anatomy, physiolo- period. If present enrollment patgy, nursing procedures, physics, terns continue, the number seeking radiation protection, darkroom to enter the occupation is likely to chemistry, principles of radio exceed the number of openings RESPIRATORY THERAPY graphic exposure, X-ray therapy, from growth and replacement WORKERS radiographic positioning, medical needs. As a result, graduates may (D.O.T. 079.368) ethics, department administration, face competition for positions of their choice. and the operation and maintenance Nature of the Work of equipment. Registration with the American Earnings and Working Respiratory therapy workers, Conditions Registry of Radiologic Technolo sometimes called inhalation gists is an asset in obtaining highly Starting salaries of radiologic therapy workers, treat patients with skilled and specialized positions. technologists employed in hospitals cardiorespiratory problems. This Registration requirements include and medical centers averaged about treatment may range from giving graduation from approved $7,800 a year in 1974, according to temporary relief to patients with school of medical X-ray technology a national survey conducted by the chronic asthma or emphysema to and the satisfactory completion of a University of Texas Medical giving emergency care in cases of written examination. After registra- Branch. Branch. Experienced radiologic heart failure, stroke, drowning, and tion, the title “Registered technologists averaged $9,600 a shock. Respiratory therapy workers Technologist (ARRT)" may be year, or slightly more than the also are among the first medical used. Once registered, technolo- average for all nonsupervisory wor- specialists called for emergency gists may be certified in radiation kers in private industry, except treatment of acute respiratory contherapy or nuclear medicine by farming. ditions arising from head injury or completing an additional year of The Federal Government paid drug poisoning. Since a patient can combined classroom study and new graduates of AMA-approved safely cease to breathe for only a work experience. schools of X-ray technology start- short span of time, the therapy Good health and stamina are im- ing salaries of $7,596 a year in late worker has a highly responsible portant qualifications for this field. 1974. role. If breathing has stopped for As openings occur, some Full-time technologists generally longer than 3 to 5 minutes, there is technologists in large X-ray depart- work 8 hours a day and 40 hours a little chance that the patient can ments may qualify as instructors in week but may be “on call" for some recover without brain damage, and X-ray techniques or advance to weekend or night emergency duty. if oxygen is unavailable for more chief X-ray technologists. Sick leave, vacations, insurance, than 9 minutes, death results. Page 11
required for supervisory and ad- Earnings and Working LICENSED PRACTICAL ministrative positions, as well as for Conditions NURSES positions in nursing education, clinical specialization, and Registered nurses who worked in (D.O.T. 079.378) research. In public health agencies, hospitals in 1974 received average advancement is usually difficult for starting salaries of $9,100 a year, nurses who do not have degrees in according to a national survey con Nature of the Work public health nursing. ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. This was above Licensed practical nurses help A growing movement in nursing, generally referred to as the “nurse the average for nonsupervisory care for the physically or mentally practitioner program” is opening workers in private industry, except ill and infirm. Under the direction farming. Registered in of physicians and registered nurses, career possibilities. Nurses new nurses they provide nursing care that who wish to take the extra training nursing homes can expect to earn are preparing for highly indepen- slightly less than those in hospitals. requires technical knowledge but Salaries dent roles in the clinical care and of industrial not the professional training of a re nurses teaching of patients. They are pracaveraged $192 a week in early gistered nurse. (See statement on Registered Nurses.) In California ticing in primary roles which in 1974, according to a survey con ducted by the Bureau of Labor clude pediatrics, geriatrics, commu and Texas, licensed practical nurses Statistics. are called licensed vocational nurnity health, mental health, and medical-surgical nursing. In early 1975, the Veterans Administration paid inexperienced In hospitals, licensed practical Employment Outlook nurses who had a diploma or an as nurses provide much of the bedside sociate degree starting salaries of care needed by patients. They take Employment opportunities for $9,473 a year; those with baccalau and record temperatures and blood registered nurses are expected to be reate degrees, $11,070. Nurses em- pressures, change dressings, ad favorable through the mid-1980's. ployed in all Federal Government minister certain prescribed However, if trends in the number of agencies earned an average of medicines, and help bed patients persons enrolling in schools of $14,700 in 1974. with bathing and other personal hynursing continue, some competition Most hospital and nursing home giene. They assist physicians and refor more desirable, higher paying nurses receive extra pay for work gistered nurses in examining pajobs may develop during the latter on evening or night shifts. Nearly all tients and in carrying out nursing part of this period. Opportunities receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a procedures. They also assist in the for full- or part-time work in year, at least 2 weeks of paid vaca delivery, care, and feeding of inpresent shortage areas such as some tion after 1 year of service, and also fants, and help registered nurses in southern States and many inner-city some type of health and retirement recovery rooms by reporting any locations are expected to be very benefits. adverse changes in patients. Some favorable through 1985. For nurses licensed practical nurses help suwho have had graduate education, Sources of Additional pervise hospital attendants. (See the outlook is excellent for obtain Information statement on Nursing Aides, Ordering positions as administrators, lies, and Attendants.) teachers, clinical specialists, and For information on approved Licensed practical nurses who public health nurses. schools of nursing, nursing careers, work in private homes provide Growth in employment of re- loans, scholarships, salaries, work- mainly day-to-day patient care that gistered nurses is expected to be ing conditions, and employment op- seldom involves highly technical much faster than the average for all portunities, contact: procedures or complicated equipoccupations because of extension ANA Committee on Nursing Careers, Amer ment. In addition to providing of prepayment programs for ican Nurses' Association, 2420 Pershing nursing care, they may prepare hospitalization and medical care, Rd., Kansas City, Mo. 64108. meals and care for the patient's expansion of medical services as a Information about employment comfort and morale. They also result of new medical techniques opportunities in the Veterans Ad- teach family members how to perand drugs, and increased interest in ministration is available from: form simple nursing tasks. preventive medicine and rehabilitaDepartment of Medicine and Surgery, In doctors' offices and in clinics, tion of the handicapped. In addition Veterans Administration, Washington, licensed practical nurses prepare to the need to fill new positions, D.C. 20420. patients for examination and treatlarge numbers of nurses will be ment. They also may make appointrequired to replace those who leave ments and record information the field each year. about patients. Page 12
Earnings and Working NURSING AIDES, aide or orderly. In some hospitals, Conditions ORDERLIES, AND they may clean patients' rooms and do other household tasks. In others. The average starting salary of ATTENDANTS under the supervision of registered licensed practical nurses in hospitals was about $6,700 a year in (D.O.T. 355.687 through nurses and licensed practical nur355.887) ses, they may assist in the care of 1974, according to a national sur patients. The tasks performed for vey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Nature of the Work patients differ considerably, and de pend on whether the patient is conFederal hospitals offered be Nursing aides, orderlies, and at- fined to bed following major surginning licensed practical nurses tendants perform a variety of duties gery, is recovering after a disabling an annual salary of $6,764 in 1974. to care for sick and injured people. accident or illness, or needs Many hospitals give pay increases Other job titles include hospital at- assistance with daily activities after specific periods of satisfactory tendant, nursing assistant, auxiliary because of infirmity caused by adservice. Some provide free lodging nursing worker, home health aide, vanced age. and laundering of uniforms. Practi geriatric aide, and (in mental incal nurses generally work 40 hours stitutions) psychiatric aide. Places of Employment a week, but often this workweek in Nursing aides and orderlies cludes some work at night and on answer patients' bell calls and About 970,000 persons worked weekends and holidays. Many deliver messages, serve meals, feed as nursing aides, orderlies, and athospitals provide paid holidays and patients who are unable to feed tendants in 1974; more than fourvacations, health insurance, and themselves, make beds, and bathe fifths were women. Most of them pension plans. and dress patients. They also may work in hospitals. Others work In private homes, licensed practi- give massages, take temperatures, primarily in nursing homes and cal nurses usually work 8 to 12 and assist patients in getting out of other institutions that provide hours a day and go home at night. bed and walking. Orderlies provide facilities for care and recuperation. many of the same services. Order A small number give supportive serSources of Additional lies also escort patients to operating vices to patients in their homes. Information and examining rooms and transport A list of State-approved training and set up heavy equipment. Some Training, Other Qualifications, attendants may work in hospital and Advancement programs and information about practical nursing is available from: pharmacies or supply rooms. Although some employers prefer The duties of nursing aides deANA Committee on Nursing Careers, Amer high school graduates, many, such ican Nurses' Association, 2420 Pershing pend on the policies of the institu Veterans Administration Rd., Kansas City, Mo. 64 108. tions where they work, the type of hospitals, do not require a high patient being cared for, andNational Association for Practical Nurse school diploma. Many employers Education and Service, Inc., 122 East equally important—the capacities accept applicants 17 or 18 years of 420 St., Suite 800, New York, N.Y. and resourcefulness of the nursing age. Others—particularly nursing 10017. homes and mental hospitals- , National Federation of Licensed Practical prefer to hire more mature persons Nurses, Inc., 250 West 57th St., New who are at least in their mid-twenYork, N.Y. 10019. ties. Information about employment Nursing aides generally are opportunities in U.S. Veterans Ad trained after they are hired. Some ministration hospitals is available institutions combine on-the-job from your local Veterans Adminis training, under the close supervi. tration hospital, as well as: sion of registered or licensed practiDepartment of Medicine and Surgery, cal nurses, with classroom instrucVeterans Administration, Washington, tion. Students learn to take and D.C. 20420. record temperatures, bathe patients, change linens on beds that are occupied by patients, and move and lift patients. Training may last several days or a few months, depending on the policies of the hospital, the complexity of the du Page 13
they may again lead useful and on the level of duties that aides are productive lives. They work to permitted to perform, the particular restore physical functions and services required by different paprevent disability from injury or ill tients when the program is in ness. progress, and the amount of time Assistants help physical thera professional physical therapists can pists perform tests on patients to spend teaching trainees. Applicants determine the best treatment for admitted to on-the-job training prothem. They use special therapy grams for physical therapist aides II equipment to apply heat, cold, generally must be high school gradlight, ultra sound, and massage, and uates or the equivalent. High school report to their supervisors the pa courses that are useful include tient's response to treatment. health, biology, social science, Assistants also help patients per physical education, typing, and form therapeutic exercises as well mathematics. Employers usually as everyday activities such as walk prefer that aides have previous ing and climbing stairs. They in hospital experience as nursing struct patients in the use of artificial aides. limbs, braces, and splints. therapist assistants and aides. A Physical therapist assistants and Physical therapist aides help pasmall number are members of the aides need good physical and mentients prepare for treatment, and Armed Forces. tal health, manual dexterity to admay remove and replace devices just equipment, body coordination 1 such as braces, splints, and slings Training, Other Qualifications, to assist in positioning patients, and and transport patients to and from and Advancement an interest in helping the physically treatment areas. They may help In 1974, 17 States licensed physi handicapped. assistants or therapists in ad cal therapist assistants who had As physical therapist assistants ministering treatment to patients. completed an approved 2-year as and aides gain experience, they may Aides care for and assemble physi- sociate degree program. Two of advance to more responsible duties cal therapy treatment equipment. these States also licensed as physi with corresponding pay increases. They also make appointments, act cal therapist assistants experienced Advancement opportunities for as receptionists, and perform other aides who passed a proficiency test aides are best in areas where asclerical duties. and who had learned their skills be sociate degree programs for physiSome small health care institufore associate degree programs cal therapist assistants are not tions employ only one person available. besides the therapist in the physical were available. therapy department. In this case, There were 42 programs for in the assistant or aide assumes most physical therapist assistants Employment Outlook of the duties of the therapist, within 1974; most were in junior or comthe limits of his or her training. munity colleges. Courses include Job opportunities for physical history and philosophy of reha- therapist assistants and aides are ex bilitation, human growth and pected to be excellent through the Places of Employment development, anatomy and mid-1980's. In communities where physiology, and psychology. A there are large classes in a physical About 10,500 persons worked as course in physical therapist therapist assistant program, some physical therapist assistants and assistant procedures covers graduates may find it necessary to aides in 1974; most of them were massage, therapeutic exercises, move to other locations where no women. Most work in physical heat and cold therapy, and func- associate degree programs are therapy departments of general and tional activities. Supervised clinical available. On the national level, specialized hospitals. Others work experience also is a requirement of however, openings for physical in physicians' or physical therapists' physical therapist assistant pro- therapist assistants caused by offices and clinics, rehabilitation grams. growth and replacement needs will centers, or nursing homes for the Physical therapist aides qualify far exceed graduates from these chronically ill and elderly. Some for their occupation through train- programs. community and government health ing received on the job in hospitals The number of physical therapist agencies, schools for crippled chil- and other health care facilities. The assistants and aides is expected to dren, and facilities for the mentally length and content of on-the-job increase much faster than the retarded also employ also employ physical programs vary widely, depending average for all occupations as the Page 14
ministering, and coordinating nutrition programs and services as part of public health programs. Nutritionists work in such diverse areas as food industries, educational and OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS health facilities, and agricultural and welfare agencies, both public and private. DIETITIANS homes, or clinics. Among their du- An increasing number of dietities, clinical dietitians confer with tians work consultants to (D.O.T. 077.081 through .168.) doctors and other members of the hospitals and to health-related health care team about patients' facilities. Others act as consultants Nature of the Work nutritional care, instruct patients to commercial enterprises, includand their families on the require- ing food processors and equipment Dietitians plan nutritious and apments and importance of their manufacturers. petizing meals to help people main diets, and suggest ways to help them tain or recover good health. They stay on these diets after leaving the also supervise the food service work hospital or clinic. In a small institu- Places of Employment ers who prepare and serve the tion, one person may be both the meals, manage purchases and keep administrative and clinical dietitian. About 33,000 persons, most of the accounts, and give advice on them women, worked as dietitians Research dietitians conduct, evalgood eating habits. Administrative in 1974. More than two-fifths work dietitians form the largest group uate, and interpret research to imin in hospitals, nursing homes, and this occupation; the others are cliniprove the nutrition of both healthy clinics, including about 1,000 in the and sick people. This research may cal, teaching, and research dieti Veterans Administration and the be in nutrition science and educatians. Nutritionists also are included U.S. Public Health Service. Coltion, food management, or food in this field. leges, universities, and school service systems and equipment. Administrative dietitians apply systems employ a large number of the principles of nutrition and They conduct studies and make dietitians as teachers or in food sersound management to large-scale surveys of food intake, food vice systems. Most of the rest work for health-related agencies, restaumeal planning and preparation, acceptance, and food utilization. such as that done in hospitals, Research projects may relate to rants or cafeterias, and large comuniversities, schools, and other in subjects such as nutritional needs panies that provide food service for stitutions. They supervise the of the aging, persons with a chronic their employees. Some dietitians disease, or space travelers. Replanning, preparation, and service are commissioned officers in the of meals; select, train, and direct search dietitians usually are em- Armed Forces. food-service supervisors and work- ployed in medical centers or educaers; budget for and purchase food, tion facilities, but also may work Training, Other Qualifications, in community health programs. equipment, and supplies; enforce and Advancement sanitary and safety regulations; and (See statement on Food Scientists prepare records and reports. Dieti- elsewhere in the Handbook.) A bachelor's degree, preferably tians who are directors of a dietetic Dietetic educators teach nutrition with a major in foods and nutrition department also decide on depart- to dietetic, medical, dental, and or institution management, is the mental policy; coordinate dietetic nursing students and to interns, re- basic educational requirement for service with the activities of other sidents, and other members of the dietitians. This degree can be departments; and are responsible health care team. This may be in earned in more than 250 colleges for the development and manage medical and educational institu- and universities, usually in department of the dietetic department tions. ments of home economics. College budget, which in large organiza- Nutritionists counsel people of all courses usually required are in food tions may amount to millions of dol- ages, as individuals or in groups, on and nutrition, institution managelars annually. sound nutrition practices to main ment, chemistry, bacteriology, Clinical dietitians, sometimes tain and improve health. This in- physiology, and related courses called therapeutic dietitians, plan cludes special diets, meal planning such mathematics, data diets and supervise the service of and preparation, and food budget- processing, psychology, sociology, meals to meet the nutritional needs ing and purchasing. Nutritionists in and economics. of patients in hospitals, nursing the public health field are responsi- For a dietitian to qualify for Page 15
instruction in optical mathematics, may advance by becoming generally work a 5-1/2- or 6-day optical physics, and the use of managers of retail optical stores or week. precision measuring instruments. becoming sales representatives for Some dispensing opticians are Formal institutional training for wholesalers or manufacturers of members of unions. The principal the dispensing optician is available eyeglasses or lenses. union in this field is the Internafor high school graduates. In 1974, tional Union of Electrical, Radio 13 schools offered 2-year full-time Employment Outlook and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO). courses in optical fabricating and dispensing work leading to an asEmployment of dispensing opti Sources of Additional cians is expected to increase much sociate degree. In addition, large Information faster than the average for all occumanufacturers of contact lenses pations through the mid-1980's. In offer nondegree courses in lens A list of schools offering courses addition to the job openings from fitting that usually last a few weeks. for people who wish to become employment A small number of opticians learn growth, some dispensing opticians is available openings will arise from the need to from: their trade in the Armed Forces. replace experienced workers who High school graduates also can Coalition of Independent Ophthalmic retire, die, or transfer to other oc- Professionals, 75 E. 55th St., New York, prepare for optical dispensing work cupations. N.Y. 10022. through 3- to 4-year formal ap Demand for prescription lens is prenticeship programs. Apprentices National Academy of Opticianry, 514 Chestexpected to increase as a result of nut St., Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. with exceptional ability may growth in the population, rising complete their training in a shorter For general information about literacy and educational levels, and period. the occupation, contact: Employers prefer applicants for a large increase in the number of Coalition of Independent Ophthalmic entry jobs as dispensing opticians to older persons (a group most likely Professionals, 75 E. 55th St., New York, to need glasses). State programs to NY. 10022. be high school graduates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A provide eye care for low-income International Union of Electrical, Radio and families, union health insurance Machine Workers, 1176 16th St. NW., knowledge of physics, algebra, Washington, D.C. 20036. geometry, and mechanical drawing plans, and Medicare also will stimulate demand. Moreover, the grow Opticians Association of America, 1250 is particularly valuable. The interest Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, and ability to do precision work are ing variety of frame styles and D.C. 20036. essential. Because dispensing opti colors may encourage individuals to cians deal directly with the public, buy more than one pair of glasses. they should be tactful and have Employment opportunities will be particularly favorable for pleasant personalities. HEALTH SERVICES In 1974, 19 States had licensing dispensing opticians who have as ADMINISTRATORS requirements governing dispensing sociate degrees in opticianry. Op will portunities be best in opticians: Alaska, Arizona, Califor (D.O.T. 169.168, 187.118, and 187.168) nia, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, metropolitan areas because many Hawaii, Kentucky, Massachusetts, of the retail optical shops in small Nature of the Work Nevada, New Jersey, New York, communities are operated solely by North Carolina, Carolina, Rhode Island, owners and do not need dispensing Medical and health care is proSouth Carolina, Tennessee, Veropticians. vided by organizations that vary mont, Virginia, and Washington. from large teaching hospitals to Some of these States also require Earnings and Working small walk-in clinics. Each of these licenses for optical mechanics in Conditions requires effective management to retail optical shops. To obtain a function properly. Health adminislicense, the applicant generally Hourly wage rates for dispensing trators, under the general supervimust meet certain minimum stand- opticians ranged from $4 to $6.70 sion of boards of directors or other ards of education and training, in 1974, based on information from governing bodies, provide this and also must pass either a written a small number of union contracts. management. or practical examination, or both. Dispensing opticians who own their Administrators coordinate the For specific requirements, the own shops can earn considerably various functions and activities that licensing boards of individual States more. combine to make an organization should be consulted. Working conditions are generally work. They may do this personally, Many dispensing opticians go pleasant, quiet, and clean. where the organization is small, or into business for themselves. Others Dispensing opticians in retail shops through a staff of assistant adminis Page 16
Scient scrolls 2,000 years old. In the tion, rural-urban migration, and the their university departments, to ac2 moors of England, other archeolo- influence of city life. company expeditions as laborers or gists have continued to study the Most anthropologists teach in to attend field schools established ancient monument called colleges and universities. They for training. They may later become Stonehenge, a mysterious circle of often combine teaching with supervisors in charge of the digging f huge stones. During the past few research. Some anthropologists or collection of material and finally years, student archeological teams specialize in museum work, which may direct a portion of the work of : have excavated three large generally combines managerial and the expedition. Ethnologists and i prehistoric communities along the administrative duties with fieldwork linguists usually do their fieldwork * Illinois River. and research on anthropological independently. Most anthropoloSome anthropologists specialize collections. A few work as con- gists base their doctoral dissertain linguistics, the scientific study of sultants or engage in nontechnical tions on data collected through the sounds and structures of lan- writing. field research; they are, therefore, guages and of the historical rela experienced fieldworkers by the * tionships among languages. They Places of Employment time they eam the Ph. D. degree. of study the relationship between the Nearly 300 colleges and universi About 3,800 language and the behavior of peo persons-about ties have bachelor's degree proé ple and assist in reconstructing the one-fifth of them women-worked grams in anthropology; some 130 prehistory of mankind. as anthropologists in 1974. About offer master's degree programs and three-fourths of all anthropologists about 80, doctoral programs. The Physical anthropologists studying human evolution compare the work in colleges and universities. choice of a graduate school is very : physical characteristics of different Several hundred work in private in important. Students interested in races or groups of people as in dustry and nonprofit organizations. museum work should select fluenced by heredity and environThe Federal Government employs a school which is associated with #!ment. This work requires extensive small number, chiefly in museums, museum that has anthropological training in human anatomy and national parks, in the Bureau of In collections. Similarly, those inbiology. A knowledge of body dian Affairs, and in technical aid terested in archeology should structure enables physical programs. State and local govern- choose either a university that of work anthropologists to ment also agencies occa employfers opportunities for summer exsionally as consultants on projects anthropologists, usually for muse perience in archeological fieldsuch as the design of cockpits for um work or health research. work, or attend an archeological 3 airplanes and spaceships, and the field school elsewhere during i sizing of clothing. They are con Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement summer vacations. sulted on criminal cases and on pro Anthropologists should have spejects to improve the environment. Students who want to become cial interest in natural history and Increasingly, they are employed in anthropologists should obtain the social studies and enjoy reading, e medical schools. Ph. D. degree. College graduates research, and writing. Traveling to Closely related to the four basic with bachelor's degrees often get remote areas and working under subfields is applied anthropology, an temporary positions and assistant difficulties are sometimes necessary emerging specialty which uses the ships in graduate departments for success. findings of other anthropologists in where they are working for ad Anthropologists work with ideas a practical manner. Applied cul vanced degrees. A master's degree, and have the opportunity for selftural anthropologists may, for ex plus field experience, is sufficient expression. They should be able to ample, provide technical guidelines for many beginning professional work independently and with detail. . to ease the transition of nonindus positions, but promotion to top trial societies to a more complex positions generally is reserved for level of socioeconomic organiza Employment Outlook individuals who have a Ph. D. tion. degree. Many colleges and universi- The majority of new jobs are exApplied linguistic anthropolo ties require a Ph. D. degree for per- pected to be in private industry and gists may produce technical and manent teaching appointments. in mental and public health and practical language information to Mathematics is helpful, since urban planning. College and univerencourage the advance of literacy statistical and computer methods statistical and computer methods sity teaching, which will remain the in societies with unwritten lan- are becoming more widely used for largest area of employment for guages. Another related specialty research in this field. Undergradu- anthropologists, is likely to have litarea is urban anthropology, which is ates may begin their field training in tle growth. the study of urban life, urbaniza- archeology by arranging, through The number of qualified Page 17
Training, Other Qualifications, ties offer bachelor's degree pro- such as housing, mass transportaand Advancement grams in economics; 200, master's; tion, and manpower development and over 100, doctoral programs. and training. Employment of Economists must have Persons who consider careers as economists in the Federal Governthorough understanding of economists should be able to work ment is expected to rise slowly-in economic theory and of mathemati- accurately and in detail since much line with the rate of growth procal methods of economic analysis. time is spent research.jected for the Federal work force as Since many beginning jobs for Frequently, the ability to work as a whole. economists in government and busi a team is required. ness involve the collection and Economists must be objective in Earnings compilation of data, a thorough their work and be able to express knowledge of basic statistical themselves effectively orally and in Starting salaries for economists procedures is required. In addition writing. with a Ph. D. were about $13,000 a to courses in macroeconomics, year in 1974, according to limited microeconomics, econometrics, information. Salaries of economists Employment Outlook and statistics, training in computer employed by colleges and universiscience also is highly recom- The number of persons who will ties in 1974 averaged about mended. graduate with bachelor's degrees in $22,000, and for those in business, Although a bachelor's degree economics through the mid-1980's economics through the mid-1980's industry, and nonprofit organizawith a major in economics is suffi- is likely to exceed available posi- tions, about $24,000. Economists cient for many beginning research tions. Although many of these who have a Ph. D. are paid higher jobs, graduate training often is degree holders may find employ- salaries than those who have lesser required for advancement to more ment in government, industry, and degrees and similar experience. A responsible positions. In 1974, business as trainees or management substantial number of economists about one-half of those working as interns, competition may be keen. supplement their basic salaries by economists held either a master's or Candidates who hold graduate consulting, teaching, and other - a Ph. D. degree. Students interested degrees also may face strong com- research activities. In general, sala in graduate training in economics petition for positions in colleges ries of experienced economists are should select schools that provide and universities, although they much higher than the average for good research facilities. should find good opportunities in all nonsupervisory workers in In the Federal Government, can- private industry and government. private industry, except farming. didates for entrance positions must Economists with training in com- In the Federal Government, the have a minimum of 21 semester puter applications should be in par- entrance salary for beginning hours of economics and 3 hours of ticular demand as well as Ph. D.'s economists having a bachelor's statistics, accounting, or calculus. working on tax, pollution, and tax, pollution, and degree was $8,500 a year in 1974; 1 A master's degree generally is government policy problems of however, those with superior required to get a job as a college in- business and industry. academic records could begin at 4 structor in many junior colleges and Private industry and business will $10,520. Those having a master's small 4-year schools. In many large continue to provide the largest degree could qualify for positions at e colleges and universities, comple- number of employment opportuni- an annual salary of $12,841, while tion of all the requirements for a ties for economists because of in- those with a Ph. D. could begin at Ph. D. degree, except the disserta- creased reliance on quantitative $15,481. Economists in the Federal tion, is necessary for appointment methods of analyzing business Government averaged around as a teaching assistant. In govern- trends, forecasting sales, and $24,700 in late 1974. ment private industry, planning purchases and production economists who have a master's operations. The next largest area of Sources of Additional degree usually can qualify for more employment opportunities for responsible research positions. economists will be in colleges and Information The Ph. D. degree is required for universities, although a projected Additional information on a a professorship in a highranking decrease in enrollments is likely to career as an economist is available college or university and is an asset affect growth in faculty size. Em from: when competing for other responsi- ployment of economists in State ble positions in government, busi American Economic Association, 1313 21st and local government agencies is Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. ness, or private research organiza expected to increase rapidly because of the growing responsibiliAbout 750 colleges and universi- ties of local governments in areas Page 18
varied; however, each basically pro- teaching positions may be available POLITICAL SCIENTISTS vides, in addition to history topics, in junior colleges, or some high training in research methods, writ- schools for those who meet State (D.O.T. 051.088) ing, and speaking. These are the certification requirements. People basic skills essential for historians in having only a bachelor's degree in Nature of the Work all positions. Quantitative methods history may find limited opportuni Political scientists study the funcof analysis, including computer ties as professional historians. tions and workings of governments. techniques, are increasingly important for historians; many college Many of them specialize in a Earnings general area of political science inprograms include them. Historians spend a great deal of cluding political theory, U.S. PolitiStarting salaries for historians cal institutions and processes, comtime studying, doing research, writ- having a doctorate averaged around parative political institutions and ing papers and reports, and giving $13,000 a year in 1974, according processes, or international relations lectures and presentations. In order to limited information; master's and organizations. Some specialize to do these things well, they must be degree holders had average starting in a particular type of political incapable of communicating their salaries of around $11,000 a year. stitution or in the politics of a ideas effectively, orally and in writ- Salaries of historians in educa- specific era. ing. The ability to work both indetional institutions averaged over Most political scientists teach in pendently and as part of a group is $18,000 in 1974; in State and local colleges and universities where they essential. governments, over $14,000; in non combine research, consultation, or profit organizations, nearly administrative duties with teaching. $18,000; and in private industry, Some are primarily researchers who Employment Outlook nearly $20,000 a year. The annual survey public opinion on political Employment of historians is ex- median salary for historians was questions for private research or. pected to grow about as fast as the around $15,500 in 1974. In general, ganizations, or study proposed average for all occupations through salaries of experienced historians legislation for Federal, State, and the mid-1980's. Historians will be are higher than the average for all municipal governments, legislative needed to fill positions in colleges nonsupervisory workers in private reference bureaus or congressional and universities, junior colleges, industry, except farming. committees. Others analyze the libraries, archives, museums, secon In the Federal Government, operations of government agencies, dary schools, research and editorial historians having bachelor's specialize in foreign affairs, or do organizations, and government. De- degree could start at $8,500 or research for either government or mand also will be strong for people $10,520 a year in 1974, depending nongovernment organizations. with training in historical specialties upon the applicant's academic Some administer government prosuch as business history, as well as record. Starting salaries for those grams. those who use quantitative methods having a master's degree were in their research. In addition to jobs $12,841 a year, and for those hav Places of Employment created by growth of the field, an ing a Ph. D., $15,481. Historians in even larger number of openings for the Federal Government averaged About 11,500 persons worked as historians each year over the pro- around $22,800 a year in late 1974. political scientists in 1974; 10 perjected period is expected to result Many historians, particularly cent were women. About four-fifths from the need to replace those who those in college teaching, supple- work in colleges and universities. retire, die, or leave the profession. ment their income by summer Most of the remainder work in Although information is limited teaching or writing books or arti- government, research bureaus, on patterns of entry to the field, the cles. A few earn additional income civic and taxpayers associations, number of persons seeking to enter from lectures. and large business firms. the occupation will probably ex Political scientists can be found ceed available positions. As a Sources of Additional in nearly every college or university result, historians who have a Ph. D. Information town since courses in government are expected to face keen competi and political science are taught in Additional information on emtion for the more desirable posi almost all institutions of higher edutions through the mid-1980's, espeployment opportunities for histori cation. Some work overseas ans is available from: cially for jobs in the academic com primarily for agencies of the U.S. munity. Historians having only the American Historical Association, 400 A St. Department of State, such as the master's degree will encounter very SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. Foreign Service, and the U.S. Agenkeen competition for jobs, but some cy for International Development. Page 19
sociology may get jobs as inter- ing choice academic positions. $18,000. Those working in nonviewers or as research assistants. Those having only a master's profit organizations and private inMany work as caseworkers, coun- degree will probably continue to dustry averaged around $17,500 selors, recreation workers, or ad- face considerable competition for and $20,000 a year, respectively. In ministrative assistants in public and academic positions, but some jobs general, salaries of experienced private welfare agencies. Sociology will be available in government and sociologists are higher than the majors who have sufficient training private industry. Sociologists well average for all nonsupervisory in statistics may get positions as trained in research methods, ad- workers in private industry, exbeginning statisticians. Those who vanced statistics, and the use of cept farming. meet State certification require- computers will have the widest In the Federal Government, the ments can teach at a high school. choice of jobs. Demand is expected entrance salary for those having a About 900 colleges and universities to be strong for research personnel bachelor's degree was $8,500 or offer bachelor degree programs in to work in the areas of rural soci $10,520 a year in 1974, depending sociology; more than 200 offer ology, community development, upon the applicant's academic master's degrees, and about 110 population analysis, public opinion record. Starting salaries for those have doctoral programs. "research, medical sociology, and ju having a master's degree were The choice of a graduate school venile delinquency and education. $12,841 a year, and for those havis important for people who want to Employment of sociologists is ex ing a Ph. D., $15,481. Sociologists become sociologists. Students in- pected to increase about as fast as in the Federal Government terested in research should select the average for all occupations averaged around $23,300 in late schools that emphasize training in through the mid-1980's. Some 1974. 1 research, statistical, and computer openings will result from the grow- In general, sociologists having the methods. Opportunities to gain ing trend to include sociology Ph. D. degree earn substantially practical experience in research courses in the curriculums of other higher salaries than those having work also may be available. Profes- professions, such as medicine, law, master's degrees. Many sociolosors and heads of sociology depart- and education. Demand in the non gists, particularly those employed ments frequently aid in the place- teaching area will center around by colleges and universities for the ment of graduates. public and private programs dealing academic year (September to Sociologists spend a great deal of with the development of human June), are likely to supplement their time in study and research. resources, particularly those their regular salaries with earnings They must be able to communicate designed to cope with social and from other sources, such as summer effectively, both orally and in writ- welfare problems. In addition to teaching and consulting work. ing. The ability to work as part of a growth needs, several hundred group as well as independently is openings will occur each year to - important. replace sociologists who die, retire, Sources of Additional Information Employment Outlook Additional information Earnings and Working on The number of persons who will sociologists is available from: Conditions graduate with advanced degrees in The American Sociological Association, sociology is likely to exceed availa- In 1974, sociologists working in 1722 N St., NW., Washington, D.C. ble job openings. Those having a educational institutions on a calen 20036. Ph. D. may face competition find- dar year basis averaged about Page 20
Earnings and Working National Rehabilitation Counseling Associa- courses. Most career counselors Conditions tion, 1522 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. also assemble and maintain a libra20005. ry of career guidance information Salaries of beginning rehabilita and recruitment literature. tion counselors in State agencies Placement counselors may speaveraged $9,300 a year in 1974. Ex cialize in areas such as law, educaperienced counselors earned tion, or part-time and summer average salaries of $12,200 a year; work. However, the extent of spethe range was $9,800 to $16,400 COLLEGE CAREER cialization usually depends upon among the States. PLANNING AND the size and type of college as well The Veterans Administration PLACEMENT as the size of the placement staff. paid counseling psychologists with COUNSELORS a 2-year master's degree and 1 year of subsequent experience--and (D.O.T. 166.268) those with a Ph. D.-starting sala Places of Employment ries of $15,481 in late 1974. Those Nature of the Work with a Ph. D. and a year of ex Nearly all 4-year colleges and perience, and those with a 2-year Choosing a career and deciding universities and many of the in whether or not to go to graduate creasing number of junior colleges master's degree and much ex school are among the difficult deci- provide career planning and placeperience, started at $18,463. Some sions faced by many college stu- ment services to their students and rehabilitation counselors with bachelor's degree were hired at dents. Career planning and place - alumni. Large colleges may employ starting salaries of $10,520 and ment counselors are employed by several counselors working under a $12,841. In general, salaries of colleges to offer encouragement director of career planning and rehabilitation counselors are above and assistance in these decisions. placement activities, in many inthe average earnings for all nonsu Career planning and placement stitutions, however, a combination counselors, sometimes called colpervisory workers in private indus of placement functions is pertry, except farming. lege placement officers, provide a formed by one director aided by a clerical staff. In some colleges, Counselors may spend only párt variety of services to college stuof their time in their offices coun dents and alumni. They assist stu- especially the smaller ones, the seling and performing necessary dents in making career selections functions of career counselors may paperwork. The remainder of their by encouraging them to examine be performed on a part-time basis time is spent in the field, working their interests, abilities, and goals, by members of the faculty or ad and then helping them to explore ministrative staff. with prospective employers, train Universities ing agencies, and the disabled per possible career alternatives and to frequently have placement officers son's family. The ability to drive a choose an occupational area that is for each major branch or campus. best suited to their individual needs. car often is necessary for fieldwork. About 4,100 persons, one-half of Rehabilitation They advise students considering career counselors them women, worked as generally work a 40-hour week or dropping out of college of the op- planning and placement counselors less, with overtime work portunities open to them. They also in colleges and universities in 1974. required to attend community and help students to get part-time and Most were employed on a full-time civic meetings in the evening. They summer jobs. basis. An additional 1,200 worked usually are covered by sick and an Career planning and placement in junior colleges; about two-thirds counselors nual leave benefits, and pension arrange for job worked part time. and health plans. recruiters to visit the campus to discuss their firm's personnel needs and to interview applicants. They Sources of Additional Training, Other Qualifications, provide employers with information Information and Advancement about students and help in appraisFor information about rehabilita- ing students' qualifications. They Although no specific educational tion counseling as a career, contact: must keep abreast of information program exists to prepare persons concerning job market develop- for career planning and placement American Psychological Association, Inc., 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. ments in order to contact prospec- work, bachelor's degree, 20036. tive employers, help students preferably in a behavioral science American Rehabilitation Counseling As prepare for promising fields, and such as psychology or sociology, is sociation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. encourage the faculty and college customary for entry into the field, NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. administration to provide pertinent and a master's degree is increas Page 21
or related to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminaries, colleges, and universities. The services that ministers con- CLERGY duct differ among Protestant denominations and also among conDeciding on a career in the clergy The clergy should be sensitive to gregations within a denomination. involves considerations different the needs of others and able to help In many denominations, ministers from those involved in other career them deal with these needs. The job follow a traditional order of worchoices. When young persons demands an ability to speak and ship; in others they adapt the servchoose to enter the ministry, write effectively, to organize, and to ices to the needs of youth and priesthood, or rabbinate, they do so supervise others. The person enter other groups within the congregaprimarily because they possess a ing this field also must enjoy study tion. Most services include Bible strong religious faith and a desire to ing because the ministry is an occu reading, hymn singing, prayers, and help others. Nevertheless, it is im- pation which requires continuous a sermon. In some denominations, portant for young people to know learning. In addition, the ministry Bible reading by a member of the as much as possible about the demands considerable initiative and congregation and individual profession and how to prepare for self-discipline. testimonials may constitute a large it, the kind of life it offers, and its More detailed information on the part of the service. needs for personnel. clergy in the three largest faiths in Ministers serving small congregaThe number of clergy needed de- the United States—Protestant, tions generally work on a personal pends largely on the number of peo- Roman Catholic, and Jewish-is basis with their parishioners. Those ple who participate in organized given in the following statements, serving large congregations have religious groups. This affects the prepared in cooperation with greater administrative responsibilinumber of churches and leaders of these faiths. Information ties, and spend considerable time synagogues established and pulpits on the clergy in other faiths may be working with committees, church to be filled. In addition to the clergy obtained directly from leaders of officers, and staff, besides performwho serve congregations, many the respective groups. ing their other duties. They may others teach or act as administra have one or more associates or tors in seminaries and in other edu assistants who share specific cational institutions; still others aspects of the ministry, such as a serve as chaplains in the Armed PROTESTANT MINISTERS minister of education who assists in Forces, industry, correctional in (D.O.T. 120.108) educational programs for different stitutions, hospitals or on college age groups, or a minister of music. campuses; or render service as mis Nature of the Work sionaries or in social welfare agen Places of Employment cies. Protestant ministers lead their Persons considering a career in congregations in worship services In 1974, about 185,000 the clergy should seek the counsel and administer the rites of baptism, ministers-about 3 percent of them of a religious leader of their faith to confirmation, and Holy Commu- women-served 72 million aid in evaluating their qualifica- nion. They prepare and deliver ser- Protestants. Most ministers serve tions. The most important of these mons and give religious instruction individual congregations. In addiare a deep religious belief and a to persons who are to become new tion, however, thousands desire to serve the spiritual needs of members of the church. They also ministers were in closely related others. The priest, minister, or perform marriages; conduct fu- fields such as chaplains in hospitals rabbi also is expected to be a model nerals; counsel individuals who and the Armed Forces. The greatest of moral and ethical conduct. A seek guidance; visit the sick, aged, number of clergy are affiliated with person considering one of these and handicapped at home and in the five largest groups of fields must realize that the civic, so- the hospital; comfort the bereaved; churches – Baptist, United Methocial, and recreational activities of a and serve church members in other dist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and member of the clergy often are in- ways. Many Protestant ministers Episcopal. fluenced and restricted by the write articles for publication, give All cities and most towns in the customs and attitudes of the com- speeches, and engage in interfaith, United States have at least one munity. community, civic, educational, and Protestant church with a full-time Page 22
tension workers is from assistant Employment Outlook knowledge of the whole profescounty agent to a more responsible sional field. job within that county, or in Extension services employ more Most home economists teach. another county in the State, to an than 15,600 professional people. Those in high schools teach stuassignment on the State Extension The demand for these workers is dents about foods and nutrition; Service staff. expected to increase, especially in clothing selection, construction and depressed rural areas. As agricul care; child development; consumer tural technology becomes more education; housing and home Places of Employment complicated, and as farm people furnishings; family relations; and become more aware of the need for other subjects related to family livExtension workers are located in organized activity, more help will ing and homemaking. They also of county offices, area offices serving be sought from trained Extension perform the regular duties of other multicounty units, and State offices, Service personnel. The Extension high school teachers that the last usually on the campus of Service also will reach new seg- described in the statement the land-grant college or university. ments of the population as residents Secondary School Teachers elseAgents are located in nearly recognize the value of its assistance, where in the Handbook. every county in the 50 States, in particularly in helping the disad Teachers in adult education proPuerto Rico, and in the District of vantaged. grams help men and women to inColumbia. County staffs range in crease their understanding of family size from one agent (serving a wide Earnings relations and to improve their variety of clientele interests) to a The salaries of extension workers homemaking skills. They also condozen or more specialized agents in counties with high population den vary by locality, but, for the most duct training programs on secondsity and great diversity of interests. part, they are competitive with ary, postsecondary, and adult levels Staffs are located in counties rangsimilar jobs in industry and govern for jobs related to home economics. ment. Special emphasis is given to ing from the most rural to the most teaching those who disadurban. Sources of Additional vantaged and handicapped. College Information teachers may combine teaching and research and often specialize in a Training, Other Qualifications, Additional information is availa- particular area of home economics. and Advancement ble from County Extension offices, Home economists employed by Cooperative Extension Service the State Director of the Coopera- private business firms and trade as tive Extension Service located at agents are required to be proficient sociations promote the developin disciplines related to the needs each land-grant university; or the ment, use, and care of specific and programs of the clientele with Extension Service, U.S. Depart. home products. They may do whom they work. They must have a ment of Agriculture, Washington, research, test products, and prepare bachelor's degree in their subjectD.C. 20250. advertisements and instructional matter field; some training in edu materials. They also may prepare cational techniques is desirable, as and present programs for radio and well. television; serve as consultants; give Often, they receive training in ex- HOME ECONOMISTS lectures and demonstrations before tension techniques in a pre-induc the public; and conduct classes for tion training program, and are up (D.O.T. 096.128) sales persons and appliance service graded through regular in-service workers. Some home economists Nature of the Work training programs in both educa study consumer needs and help tional techniques and the subject Home economists work to im manufacturers translate these needs matter for which they are responsi prove products, services, and prac. into useful products. ble. In addition to subject matter tices that affect the comfort and Some home economists conduct proficiency, extension workers well-being of the family. Some spe- research for the Federal Governmust like to work with people and cialize in specific areas, such as ment, State agricultural experiment to help them. consumer economics, housing, stations, colleges, universities, and In most States, specialists and home management, home furnish- private organizations. The U.S. Deagents assigned to multicounty and ings and equipment, food and partment of Agriculture employs State staff jobs are required to have nutrition, clothing and textiles, the largest group of researchers to at least one advanced degree and in and child development and family do work such as study the buying many they must have a Ph. D. relations. Others have a broad and spending habits of families in Page 23
vhat is called general home university teaching are expected to from $12,800 to $21,800 or more, conomics. Advanced courses in be good. depending on the type of position chemistry and nutrition are impor- Although employment of home and level of responsibility. In late ant for work in foods and nutrition; economists is expected to grow 1974, the Federal Government paid cience and statistics for research more slowly than the average for all experienced home economists vork; and journalism for advertis- occupations, many jobs will average salaries of $19,100 a year. ng, public relations work, and all become available each year to Cooperative Extension Service other work in the communications replace those who die, retire, or workers on the county level ield. To teach home economics in leave the field for other reasons. averaged $11,800 while those on high school, students must Growth will result from increasing the State level averaged $16,400 in complete the courses required for a awareness of the contributions that 1974. In general, home economists teacher's certificate. can be made by professionally earn about one and one-half times Scholarships, fellowships, and trained home economists in quality as much as the average for all nonassistantships are available for un- child care, nutrition, housing and supervisory workers in private indergraduate and graduate study. furnishings design, consumer jedu- dustry, except farming. Although colleges and universities cation, and ecology. They also will Home economists usually work a offer most of these financial grants, be needed to promote home 40-hour week. Those in teaching government agencies, research products, to act as consultants to and extension service positions, foundations, businesses, and the consumers, and to do research for however, frequently work longer American Home Economics As- improvement of home products and hours because they are expected to sociation Foundation provide addi- services. The Vocational Education be available for evening lectures, tional funds. Amendments of 1968, which pro- demonstrations, and other work. Home economists must be able to vide funds for consumer and Most home economists receive work with people of various in- homemaking education at the fringe benefits, such as paid vacacomes and cultural backgrounds secondary, postsecondary, and tion, sick leave, retirement pay, and and should have a capacity for adult levels, and focus on the needs insurance benefits. leadership. Poise and an interest in of low-income families, should people also are essential for those further stimulate the need for home Sources of Additional who deal with the public. The abili- economists. Information ty to write and speak well is important. Among the subjects recom A list of schools granting degrees mended for high school students in Earnings and Working in home economics and additional terested in careers in this field are Conditions information about home economics home economics, speech, English, careers, the types of home Home economics teachers in health, mathematics, chemistry, public schools generally receiv economics majors offered in each the and the social sciences. school granting degrees in home same salaries as other teachers. In Home economists frequently gain economics, and graduate scholar1974, the average starting salary of ships are available from: experience as teachers and advance public school teachers with to positions in business, extension American Home Economics Association, bachelor's degree was $7,700, ac 2010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., service work, and teacher educa cording to a National Education tion. Washington, D.C. 20036 Association survey. Public school teachers with a master's degree Employment Outlook received average starting salaries of $8,600. Experienced teachers Home economists, especially averaged $11,800. Median salaries those wishing to teach in high of women teaching in colleges and RECREATION WORKERS schools, will face keen competition universities in 1974 ranged from (D.O.T. 079.128, 159.228, 187.118, for jobs through the mid-1980's. $9,700 for instructors to $18,200 195.168, 195.228) # Other areas of home economics for professors. also will experience competitive job The Federal Government paid Nature of the Work market conditions as those unable home economists with bachelor's to find teaching jobs look for other degrees starting salaries of $8,500 Participation in organized recreapositions. However, for those and $10,500 in late 1974, depend- tion activities has become an inwilling to continue their education ing on their scholastic record. tegral part of the increasing leisure toward an advanced degree, em- Those with additional education time enjoyed by many Americans. ployment prospects in college and and experience generally earned Recreation workers plan, organize, Page 24
Persons seeking jobs as social work now done by professional per- munity. These problems, agservice aides should get along well sonnel. gravated by the growing complexity with people and be able to work as of society, have greatly increased part of a team. They should be tact- Earnings and Working the need for social services. Social ful, courteous, and want to help Conditions workers assist individuals, families, others. groups and communities in using Homemaker aides should be per Full-time social service aides with these services to solve their sons who have demonstrated com no prior experience or minimum education earned salaries ranging problems. petence in managing a home and The three basic approaches to sofrom $5,000 to $6,500 a year in rearing children. Workers assigned cial work are casework, group 1974. Those with experience or adto Puerto Rican or Mexican-Amerditional education usually earned work, and community organization. ican communities should speak and The approach chosen is usually understand Spanish. Some social more. The Federal Government determined by the nature of the service aide jobs require typing paid beginning social service aides salaries of from $5,294 to $8,500 in problem and the time and resources skills. Most employers emphasize the late 1974 depending upon their available for solving it. Social work ers often combine these apdevelopment of career ladders with education and prior work proaches in dealing with a specific opportunities for advancement perience; experienced aides earned problem. through a combination of on-theas much as $10,520. Many aides in In casework, social workers use both public and private agencies interviews to identify the problems job training, work experience, and further education. Aides usually are work part time and earn less. of individuals and families. They trained on the job from 1 to several Although they work much of the then help people to understand and time in offices of social service de. months. Those without high school solve their problems and to secure diplomas often receive classroom partments and agencies, they may needed services, education, or job instruction to help them pass a high frequently visit the homes of clients training. In group work, social or offices of other social service school equivalency examination. workers help people to understand Entry level positions as employ- agencies, hospitals, and business both themselves and others better, ment aides can lead to a job as an establishments. Aides often must to overcome racial and cultural employment interviewer, and, after work evenings or weekends when prejudices, and to work together clients can be reached. special training, to employment with others in achieving a common counselor. Employing agencies Sources of Additional goal. They plan and conduct group frequently pay part of the cost of activities for children, adolescents, Information further education for social services older persons and other adults in a aides. Information on requirements for variety of settings such as settlesocial service aide jobs is available ment houses, hospitals, homes for Employment Outlook from city, county, or State depart the aged, and correctional instituments of welfare or social services, tions. In community organization, Employment of social service community neighborhood social workers coodinate the efforts aides is expected to grow much development agencies, and local of- of groups, such as political, civic, faster than the average for all occufices of the State employment ser religious, business, and union orpations through the mid-1980's. vice. ganizations, to combat social Many opportunities are expected problems through community profor part-time work. A large number grams. For a neighborhood or of openings will arise from the need larger area, they may help plan and to replace aides who die, retire, develop health, housing, welfare, transfer to other jobs. SOCIAL WORKERS and recreation services. They often Employment in this field will (D.O.T. 195.108, .118,.168, and coordinate existing social services stem from population growth, cou and organize fund raising for com .208, .228) pled with this country's continuing munity social welfare activities. commitment to aid those who are Nature of the Work The majority of social workers disadvantaged, disabled, or unable provide social services directly to to care for themselves. In addition, The ability of people to live effec- individuals, families, or groups. as social welfare services and pro- tively in society is often hampered However, a substantial number are grams expand, social service aides by problems that range from per by problems that range from per executives, administrators, or suincreasingly will be used for much sonal ones to those arising from so- pervisors. Others college of the routine and less responsible cial unrest within a group or com- teachers, research workers, con Page 25
ions, through the mid-1980's, the this profession, annual earnings DANCERS Jumber of persons who want to may be low for many lesser-known enter the profession is expected to performers. According to a recent (D.O.T. 151.028 and 151.048) be greater than employment oppor- survey by the Screen Actors Guild, Nature of the Work tunities. Even highly talented young three-quarters of their members Dancing is an ancient and worldpeople are likely to face stiff com- earned less than $3,500 a year; only wide art that has many different petition and economic difficulties. 3 percent earned more than forms. Professional dancers may [ $25,000 a year. In all fields, many perform in classical ballet or well-known actors and actresses modern dance, in dance adaptaEarnings and Working have salary rates above the tions for musical shows, in folk Conditions minimums. Salaries of the few top dances, and in other popular kinds ! Actors and actresses in the legiti stars are many times the figures of dancing. In classical ballet, mate theater belong to the Actors' cited. movements are based on certain Equity Association, in motion pic Eight performances amount to a conventional or styled "positions,' tures, including television films, to week's work on the legitimate and women dance "en point” (on the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to stage, and any additional per- the tips of their toes). In modern the Screen Extras Guild, Inc., in formances are paid for as overtime. dance, movements are more varied television or radio, to the American After the show opens, the basic but are nonetheless carefully Federation of Television and Radio workweek is 36 hours, including 12 planned and executed to follow a Artists (AFTRA). These unions hours for rehearsals. Before it pattern. and the show producers sign basic opens, however, the workweek In dance productions, performers collective bargaining agreements usually is longer to allow time for most often work as a corps de ballet which set minimum 'salaries, hours rehearsals. Evening work is, of (chorus). However, a group of of work, and other conditions of course, a regular part of a stage selected dancers may do special employment. Each actor also signs actor's life. Rehearsals may be held numbers, and a very few top artists a separate contract which may pro late at night and on weekends and do solo work. vide for higher salaries than those holidays. When plays are on the Many dancers combine stage specified in the basic agreement. road, weekend traveling often is work with full-time teaching. The The minimum weekly salary for necessary. few dancers who become choreogactors in Broadway productions Most actors are covered by a raphers create new ballet or dance was about $245 in 1974. Those in pension fund and a growing number routines. Others are dance directors small “off-Broadway” theaters have hospitalization insurance to who train dancers in new producreceived a minimum of $137.50 to which employers contribute. All tions. $210 a week depending on the Equity and AFTRA members have (This statement does not include theater's gross receipts. For shows paid vacations and sick leave. Most instructors of ballroom, American on the road, the minimum rate was stage actors get little if any unem- or international folk dance and about $347.50 $.a week. (All ployment compensation solely from other social dancing.) minimum salaries are adjusted up acting since they seldom have ward automatically, by union con enough employment in any State to tract, commensurate with increases meet the eligibility requirements. in the cost of living as reflected in Consequently, when a show closes, the Bureau of Labor Statistics Con and while waiting for another role sumer Price Index.) they often have to take any casual work obtainable. In 1974, motion picture and television actors and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of Sources of Additional $172.50, or $604 for a 5-day week. Information For extras, the minimum rate was $46 a day. Actors and actresses Information on colleges and who did not work on prime time universities and conservatories network television received which offer a major in drama is minimum program fee of about available from: $203.50 for a single half-hour pro- American Educational Theater Association, gram and 8 hours of rehearsal time. 1317 F St. NW., Washington, D.C. Because of the frequent periods of 20004. unemployment, characteristic of Page 26
The employment outlook in in reputation, the number of teachers SINGERS music education for people who are and students in the locality, and the qualified as teachers as well as economic status of the community. (D.O.T. 152.028 and .048) musicians is better than for those Musicians customarily work at Nature of the Work qualified as performers only. How- night and on weekends. They also ever, the supply of music teachers must spend considerable time in Professional singing is an art that in the Nation's schools is practice and in rehearsal. usually requires not only a fine adequate-a situation which is like- Many musicians, primarily those voice but also a highly developed ly to continue through the mid- employed by symphony orchestras, technique and a broad knowledge 1980's. work under master wage agree- of music. A small number of singing ments, which guarantee a season's stars make recordings or go on conwork up to 52 weeks. Musicians in Earnings and Working cert tours in the United States and Conditions other areas, however, may face abroad. Somewhat larger numbers relatively long periods of unem of singers obtain leading or supportThe amount received for a per- ployment between jobs. Thus, their ing roles in operas and popular formance by either classical or earnings generally are lower than music shows, or secure engagepopular musicians depends to a those of many other occupations. ments as concert sologists in oralarge extent on their professional Moreover, they may not work torios and other types of perreputation. Musicians in 1 of the 28 steadily for one employer. Con formances. Some singers also major symphony orchestras in the sequently, some performers cannot become members of opera and United States in 1974 received qualify for unemployment compen musical comedy choruses or other minimum salaries that ranged from sation, and few have either sick professional choral groups. Popular about $190 to $350 a week accordleave or vacations with pay. music singers perform in musical ing to the American Symphony Most professional musicians be- shows of all kinds, in the movies, Orchestras League, Inc. Eight long to the American Federation of on the stage, on radio and televi. orchestras–New York, Boston, Musicians (AFL-CIO). Concertsion, in concerts and in nightclubs Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincin- soloists also belong to the American and other enterainment places. The nati, Houston, Chicago, and the Na Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFL- best known popular music singers tional-have year-round seasons CIO). make and sell many recordings. (50 weeks or more) and minimum Since most singers of both classisalaries ranging from $10,000 to Sources of Additional cal and popular music have only $18,000. Other major symphony Information part-time or irregular employment orchestras have seasons ranging For information about wages, they often have other jobs and sing from 34 to 52 weeks. hours of work, and working condi. only in the evenings or Musicians who played at dances, club dates, water shows, ballets, tions for professional musicians, weekends. Some give private voice contact: lessons. A number of singers teach musical comedies, concerts, and in courses in general music and direct dustrial shows earned a minimum of American Federation of Musicians (AFL$33 to $40 for 3 hours of work. The CIO), 641 Lexington Ave., New York, elementary and secondary school N.Y. 10022. choruses. Others give voice training minimum scale for recording is Information about the require- or direct choral groups in churches, $100 for a 15 minute tape (3 hours ments for certification of organists in music conservatories or in colactual taping time). and choir masters is available from: leges and universities. Full-time church musicians American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave., earned from $7,500 to $16,000 a New York, N.Y. 10020. year-according to hours worked a A list of accredited schools of week and level of training. music is available from: Places of Employment The salary schedule for all National Association of Schools of Music, teachers determines earnings of About 36,000 persons worked as 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. music teachers in public schools. 22090. professional singers in 1974. Op(See statements on Elementary and Further information about music portunities for signing engagements Secondary School Teachers elseteaching in elementary and secon are mainly in New York City, Los where in the Handbook.) Many dary schools is available from: Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, teachers give private music lessons Dallas and Chicago-the Nation's Music Educators National Conference, Suite to supplement their earnings. How chief entertainment centers. Nash 601, 8150 Leesburg Pike, Vienna, Va. ever, earnings are uncertain and 22180. ville, Tennessee, a major center for vary according to the musician's country and western music, is one |
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