The name Federalists was adopted both by the supporters of ratification of the U.S. Constitution and by members of one of the nation’s first two political parties. Alexander Hamilton was an influential Federalist who wrote many of the essays in The Federalist, published in 1788. These articles advocated the ratification of the Constitution. Later, those who supported Hamilton’s aggressive fiscal policies formed the Federalist Party, which grew to support a strong national government, an expansive interpretation of congressional powers under the Constitution through the elastic clause, and a more mercantile economy. (Image via Wikimedia Commons, painted by John Trumbull circa 1805, public domain) Show
The name Federalists was adopted both by the supporters of ratification of the U.S. Constitution and by members of one of the nation’s first two political parties. Federalists battled for adoption of the ConstitutionIn the clash in 1788 over ratification of the Constitution by nine or more state conventions, Federalist supporters battled for a strong union and the adoption of the Constitution, and Anti-Federalists fought against the creation of a stronger national government and sought to leave the Articles of Confederation, the predecessor of the Constitution, intact. The Federalists included big property owners in the North, conservative small farmers and businessmen, wealthy merchants, clergymen, judges, lawyers, and professionals. They favored weaker state governments, a strong centralized government, the indirect election of government officials, longer term limits for officeholders, and representative, rather than direct, democracy. Federalists published the Federalist papers in New York City newspapersFaced with forceful Anti-Federalist opposition to a strong national government, the Federalists published a series of 85 articles in New York City newspapers in which they advocated ratification of the Constitution. A compilation of these articles written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay (under the pseudonym Publius), were published as The Federalist in 1788. Through these papers and other writings, the Federalists successfully articulated their position in favor of adoption of the Constitution. James Madison was another author of the Federalist Papers. To ensure adoption of the Constitution, the Federalists, such as James Madison, promised to add amendments specifically protecting individual liberties. These amendments, including the First Amendment, became the Bill of Rights. James Madison later became a Democratic-Republican and opposed many Federalist policies.(Image via the White House Historical Association, painted by John Vanderlyn in 1816, public domain) Federalists argued for counterbalancing branches of governmentIn light of charges that the Constitution created a strong national government, they were able to argue that the separation of powers among the three branches of government protected the rights of the people. Because the three branches were equal, none could assume control over the other. When challenged over the lack of individual liberties, the Federalists argued that the Constitution did not include a bill of rights because the new Constitution did not vest in the new government the authority to suppress individual liberties. The Federalists further argued that because it would be impossible to list all the rights afforded to Americans, it would be best to list none. In the end, however, to ensure adoption of the Constitution, the Federalists promised to add amendments specifically protecting individual liberties (Federalists such as James Madison ultimately agreed to support a bill of rights largely to head off the possibility of a second convention that might undo the work of the first). Federalists compromised and adopted the Bill of RightsThus upon ratification of the Constitution, Madison introduced 12 amendments during the First Congress in 1789. States ratified 10 of these amendments, now designated as the Bill of Rights, in 1791. The first of these amendments contains guarantees of freedom of religion, speech, press, peaceable assembly, and petition and has also been interpreted to protect the right of association. In 1798, during the administration of John Adams, the Federalists attempted to squelch dissent by adopting the Sedition Act, which restricted freedom of speech and the press. Although the Federalist Party was strong in New England and the Northeast, it was left without a strong leader after the death of Alexander Hamilton and retirement of Adams. Its increasingly aristocratic tendencies and its opposition to the War of 1812 helped to fuel its demise in 1816.(Image via the U.S. Navy, painted by Asher Brown Durand between 1735 and 1826, public domain) Federalist Party emerged to support Alexander Hamilton's policiesAlthough the Bill of Rights enabled Federalists and Anti-Federalists to reach a compromise that led to the adoption of the Constitution, this harmony did not extend into the presidency of George Washington; political divisions within the cabinet of the newly created government emerged in 1792 over national fiscal policy, splitting those who previously supported the Constitution into rival groups, some of whom allied with former Anti-Federalists. Those who supported Alexander Hamilton’s aggressive fiscal policies formed the Federalist Party, which later grew to support a strong national government, an expansive interpretation of congressional powers under the Constitution through the elastic clause, and a more mercantile economy. Their Democratic-Republican opponents, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, tended to emphasize states’ rights and agrarianism. In 1798, during the administration of John Adams, the Federalists attempted to squelch dissent by adopting the Sedition Act, which restricted freedom of speech and the press, but opposition to this law helped Democratic-Republicans gain victory in the elections of 1800. Federalist Party ended in 1816Although the Federalist Party was strong in New England and the Northeast, it was left without a strong leader after the death of Alexander Hamilton and retirement of John Adams. Its increasingly aristocratic tendencies and its opposition to the War of 1812 helped to fuel its demise in 1816. This article was originally published in 2009. Mitzi Ramos is an Instructor of Political Science at Northeastern Illinois University. Send Feedback on this articlePage 2
Sweezy v. New Hampshire (1957) stands as the first U.S. Supreme Court case to expound upon the concept of academic freedom though some earlier cases mention it. Most constitutional academic freedom issues today revolve around professors’ speech, students’ speech, faculty’s relations to government speech, and using affirmative action in student admissions. Although academic freedom is regularly invoked as a constitutional right under the First Amendment, the Court has never specifically enumerated it as one, and judicial opinions have not developed a consistent interpretation of constitutional academic freedom or pronounced a consistent framework to analyze such claims.
A portrait of James Madison (also known as the father of the Constitution) by John Vanderlyn (White House Historical Association)
After four months of intense debate, the delegates finally came to an agreement, and on September 17, 1787, the Constitution as we know it was born. The important role Washington’s commanding presence played in achieving this outcome cannot be underestimated. Perhaps James Monroe summarized this role best when, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, he said that “Be assured, [Washington’s] influence carried the government.” Years before the convention, Washington expressed concern that the bold experiment he risked his life for would not succeed for want of lack of unity. In a letter to James Madison on November 30th, 1785, Washington wrote that:
While Washington feared disunion, his leadership during the convention ultimately succeeded in uniting the delegates, and the new nation, behind the idea of a new federal government. There was no blueprint for this monumental undertaking, but it ultimately produced one of the world's greatest political documents, the United States Constitution.
The four months in Philadelphia during the Constitutional Convention were fiery and intense.
55 delegates had come together to make small changes to their current government and ended up creating a new one. As Washington sat above this group, observing the chaos, there were five other players that had key roles in the creation of the Constitution. Each of these men brought specific ideas about the role of government in the new nation. In the end, parts of each individual's ideas were taken and put together to create the constitution.
George Washington
Portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart
Delegate for: Virginia Contribution: Having been elected unanimously as the president of the Constitutional Convention, Washington’s presence provided a sense of focus and direction. While he originally did not want to be involved with the creation of the Constitution, Washington certainly had a vision for a stronger union. By being present, he was able to oversee the debate and help make that vision a reality. Biography of George Washington
James Madison
James Madison by John Vanderlyn (White House Historical Association)
Delegate for: Virginia Contribution: Famously known as the “father of the Constitution”, James Madison was a driving force behind the convention. He came well prepared for all arguments against the creation of a new government. After the Constitution had been written and signed, Madison then wrote the Federalist Papers with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. These 85 essays explained the significance of the Constitution, in an effort to persuade states to ratify. Although the need for a bill of rights was advocated by George Mason, Madison also contributed to the Constitution by writing the first 10 amendments that were adopted by the first Congress. Learn More About James Madison
George Mason
Portrait of George Mason by John Hesselius (Wikimedia)
Delegate for: Virginia Contribution: Although he was one of only three delegates not to sign the Constitution, George Mason had a very unique role in its creation. He came to the convention deeply concerned with the amount of power being given to the federal government, and the convention’s unwillingness to end the slave trade. Ultimately, Mason said “I would sooner chop off my right hand” than sign the Constitution without a Bill of Rights. Even though he did not put ink to paper, Mason’s desire to have the freedoms and rights of the country’s citizens specifically stated were immortalized in the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, referred to as the Bill of Rights. Learn More About George Mason
Roger Sherman
Painting of Roger Sherman by Ralph Earl (Wikimedia)
Delegate for: Connecticut Contribution: Credit for one of the core staples of the American government goes to Roger Sherman. He proposed the “Connecticut Compromise” also known as “the Great Compromise.” While large states, like Virginia, advocated for legislative voting based solely on proportional representation, smaller states demanded equal representation of each state in the new congress. Sherman’s compromise proposed that each state would be proportionally represented by population in the House of Representatives, and by an equal number of votes from each state in the Senate. Sherman was also the only founding father to have signed all major documents of the Revolutionary era: The Continental Association of 1774, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution.
William Paterson
Portrait of William Paterson during his time on the Supreme Court (Wikimedia)
Delegate for: New Jersey Contribution: William Paterson helped to author the New Jersey Plan, which attempted to safeguard the rights of small states. In his plan, Paterson called for each state to have equal representation in Congress. He opposed plans for proportional representation for fear that the interests of small states would be ignored. In reference to proportional representation, Paterson wrote “I would rather submit to a Monarch, to a despot, than to such a fate.” He left the convention in late July, but returned to sign the Constitution in September when aspects of his proposal were included in the Connecticut compromise.
James Wilson
Founding Father James Wilson also served as Supreme court Justice (Wikimedia)
Delegate for: Pennsylvania Contribution: James Wilson’s most notable contribution to the convention was his desire for a single executive, not a committee. This individual would have absolute veto power to overturn laws created by the legislature. Wilson also favored the direct election of the executive by the people of the United States. Other delegates favored the election of the executive by Congress, and feared that an absolute veto would quickly lead to abuses of power. Arguments over Wilson’s position eventually led to compromises that included limited veto powers of the executive and the establishment of the electoral college. In this compromise, between direct election by the people and the appointment of the president by Congress, the president would be chosen by a group of electors who were selected by the people of their state or the state legislatures.
Richard M. Ketchum. The World of George Washington. (New York, American Heritage Publishing Company, Inc.) |