Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900, by ecological historian Alfred W. Crosby explores how “portmanteau biota”, helped Europeans to eradicate whole societies in the Neo-Europes (xv, 89). Crosby believes that temperate zones, climates similar to that of Europe, allowed European biota to thrive, which allowed for European expansion. Crosby discusses the Norse invasions and the Crusades as examples of how Europeans were not able to expand. Crosby claims that climate was crucial to European expansion because it allowed portmanteau biota to thrive. The strength in Crosby’s argument is that he introduces ecology as a crucial factor in European expansion. However, he forgets that without technology, ecological factors would have had a limited role in European expansion to the Neo-Europes. Alfred W. Crosby is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Texas at Austin where he still teaches history, geography, and American studies. Crosby received his degree from Harvard University in 1952 and then went on to serve in the U.S. Army until 1955. Crosby was involved in the Civil Rights movement, and taught black studies. His research interests include victimized, economically exploited, or enslaved people. He also wrote on commonly ignored topics like disease and its role in society, imperialism, capitalism, intellectual and technological history. Crosby has written many books to include The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (1972); America’s Forgotten Pandemic (1989); The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250-1600 (1997); Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History (2002); and Children of the Sun: A History of Humanity’s Unappeasable Appetite... ... middle of paper ... .... Ecological Imperialism provides new insight into the ecological expansion of Europe. The introductory nature of the topic requires more in-depth research. This book is for students, historians, teachers, and public who want an introduction into ecological history or early American history. However, the reader needs to be reminded that without technology, medical science and military power would have been impossible. Without technology, countries are left behind politically, socially, and economically. Crosby explains well that ecology played a minor role in the expansion of Europe into the Neo-Europes. However, it seems that technology played a bigger role in European expansion than any other factor. Penicillin is not a cure for bacterial infections until people had discovered its use and the only way the Europeans were able to get to the Neo-Europes is by ship.
Ecological imperialism is a very insightful book based on the fact that it asks the basic question that has continued to attract attention and controversy in equal measure. There has been an argument as per to whether environmental issues of today are historically determined. If this is the case that such issues are historically determined, then there should be some kind of history that is most relevant to questions that revolve around policy making and management. The main question that Crosby poses is whether the expansion by Europeans would have succeeded without the biota that they brought with them. The book explains that the expansion was successful because the biota that Europeans brought with them succeeded. It remains to be understood how a few disoriented Europeans were able to overwhelm the new world with their civilizations (Crosby 67). There are good answers to this question that have been posed by Crosby as he explains various aspects that relate to ecological imperialism. In fact Crosby has been able to popularize the concept of ecological dimension by looking at the history of imperial expansion into the new world. There is a question as per to how Europeans were able to colonize people of the new world with misfiring guns and spears. In this case, Crosby tries to explain that the victory hat Europeans had is not as a result of their political and military might but bacteriology. This is where Europeans unwittingly carried with them diseases like small pox and measles that were used to wipe out inhabitants of the new world. Therefore a good question that is asked is: did ecology shape European expansion? As far as this issue is concerned, European expansion can be explained by ecological factors (Crosby 59). Ecology was able to create Neo-Europe’s that facilitated the expansion of Europeans in the new world. Why did Europeans spread so quickly into America, New Zealand, Australia and others is s question that has been well answered by this book in different perspectives that are supposed to be understood? The question is not so innocent because it explains that other things like pests, pigs, livestock and diseases followed Europeans to the new world (Crosby 68). The most splendid answer is found in the final chapters where there is a definition that weeds can be explained as organisms that thrive on disturbances that are always caused by humans. If this is the case, then humans can as well be described and considered as the primary weed of all. There is a disequilibrium that was fathered and distributed by different people thereby creating a potent self replicating system (Crosby 151). There are various advantages that Europeans developed to explain why they are found everywhere. It should be understood that there are other places where Europeans failed which is realistic in one way or the other. As far as Crosby’s arguments are concerned, his question is very useful and well conceived because it explains to people the ecological and historical impact of various aspects of European expansionism up to the 20th century. The question is well conceived because for Europeans to have decided to expand into new territories, they must have factored into account various aspects like geography and climate. This has therefore helped to present a fresh insight that can deviate from the normal norms. It should be known that this is a millennia long process that has been well explained by Crosby for all people to understand (Crosby 215). The success of Europeans was as a result of different factors other than weapons which are well boiled down by Crosby. In this case, it builds on a useful question in trying to understand the thesis. The thesis of the book is clear and well stated because it helps people to understand different aspects that relate to ecological imperialism. This is because the thesis holds that Europe had an unassailable biotic mix that could not be understood by other people. Native people and ecosystems could not understand the biotic mix of Europeans which is clear and well stated thereby helping people to understand the book well (Crosby 90). This therefore means that the argument is sound and well supported. As much as there might be some reservations about his arguments, it is well thought and explained out because there are real examples that have been used to reinforce it. There is proper explanation because it is quite obvious from the argument that the biota functioned as a team wherever it was taken up by Europeans. It should be understood that there are various ways by which Crosby might be able to improve upon his argument or evidence. As much as Crosby is trying to advance a good point, the way it has been put forward is problematic in one way or the other. Humans have been excluded from the picture which is not good (Crosby 42). This work can be improved upon by ensuring that human development is not relegated to the sidelines as Crosby has argued. There should be no dangerously reductive picture of the historical developments that Crosby has tried to argue in favor of. This therefore paints a rosy picture that deterministic ecological explanations cannot be held accountable for the European expansion that was witnessed in successive years. All in all, Crosby should not forget that the initial European exploration was motivated by curiosity rather than necessity. Works CitedCrosby, Alfred. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Print. Need a custom Essay sample written from scratch by
A Broken Frontier: Ecological Imperialism in the Canadian North,” Environmental History 12 (October 2007): 759-95. Open source article by Liza Piper and John Sandlos. Article Discussion QuestionsQ. What is the dominant historical narrative of Ecological Imperialism proposed by Alfred W. Crosby? How do Piper and Sandlos question and expand this model in their case study of the Canadian North? Q. Piper and Sandlos suggest that disease, in and of itself, was not solely responsible for decimated populations. Instead, they posit a domino and circular effect, which began with disease and resulted in more disease and poor rates of recovery. How did disease negatively affect other aspects of Inuit and First Nations ways of life, and render those ways of life unsustainable during a period of disease? Q. In their case study, Piper and Sandlos challenge Lower’s belief of a “new colonial frontier based on agricultural development.” To what extent do they perceive the uptake of agricultural practices in the North, and where and in what context do they situate it? Q. Piper and Sandlos contend that Ecological Imperialism in the Canadian North was largely stymied by bio-climatic features of geography. How did the environment halt and delimit encroachment of alien species, be they flora or fauna? What were some of the agrarian interventions introduced by the newcomers? Consider their successes and failures. What impacts did they have on indigenous ways of life? Q. What is Ecological Imperialism’s legacy? Does it still remain with us today? Is it ever appropriate to introduce alien species into foreign environments? What are the potential risks and rewards? Q. What is meant by the term ‘Virgin Soil’ and why is it, at best, only partly accurate in this case? Q. How successful have Piper and Sandlos been here, at bringing science and the humanities together, to tell a narrative? Contextual EssayIn their co-authored article, Piper and Sandlos invite readers to recognize the role of alien species in attempts to colonize the Canadian arctic. Alien species are animals, plants, fungi and micro-organisms introduced outside of their native habitat. They reproduce rapidly in their new ranges, out-competing native species for food and habitat, resulting in reduced biodiversity. In the early 1970s American historian Alfred Crosby coined the term “The Columbian Exchange.” He used it to refer to the exchange of diseases, animals, plants and human populations, between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres, following the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492. A related term, “ecological imperialism” is a set of biological and geographical explanations as to why Europeans were able to colonize neo-Europes with such apparent ease. The neo-Europes were temperate locations colonized by Europeans, such as Australia, North America, and southern South America. Rather than allowing for innate European superiority, Alfred Crosby argued that the extended close proximity of European humans and domesticated animals (and their associated germs and diseases), gave rise to some level of European immunity to diseases such as measles and smallpox. When Europeans travelled to the neo-Europes, they brought a portmanteau, or suitcase, of biota with them, including diseases, plants and animals. Because the hunter-gatherer indigenous inhabitants of these Neo-Europes did not have any historical exposure to these diseases, the resulting illnesses spread quickly among aboriginal populations, for whom they were overwhelmingly lethal. Thus weakened (or eliminated), native populations could not repel the newcomers from encroaching on their traditional territories. Customary understandings of ecological imperialism have tended to discount the higher latitudes as having participated in the Columbian exchange. Piper and Sandlos make the case that while the Canadian north did not experience the same scale of environmental change as more temperate regions, colonization attempts here did coincide with species introductions. In their article, Piper and Sandlos explore these ideas via three case studies: disease, animal and plant introductions. Primary SourcesTextual Primary SourceDawson, George M. (1849-1901). Report on the climate and agricultural value, general geological features and minerals of economic importance of part of the northern portion of British Columbia, and of the Peace River Country. CIHM/ICMH microfiche series; no. 02368. [S.l]: s.n, [1879?]. If assigning to students as a parallel primary source reading, only pages 107 – 121 are relevant. The remainder of the document focuses on mineral wealth. Q: After skimming this piece, comment on the range of sources that Dawson has compiled to inform his impressions. Pay particular attention to the role that uncertainty plays in his narrative. Q: Crosby’s ecological imperialism thesis seems to imply that the application of the newcomer’s portmanteau of biota was a trivial procedure. Comment on this suggestion, having read Dawson’s account here. Q: After your reading, would you have been convinced by Dawson’s conclusion, that “it would be premature to allow that the climate of the Peace River is inferior to that of region about Edmonton or Saskatchewan” (P 119)? PhotographsPiper and Sandlos’ article describes the introduction of reindeer to the Mackenzie Delta. Library and Archives Canada hold digitized photos of these activities in an album. Instructors can use these images to bring this episode to life for their students. From LAC’s album metadata: “This album, comprised of 66 pages on which 268 photographs are mounted, consists solely of images of reindeer from Alaska and the government Reindeer Station that was set up in the Northwest Territories by the Department of the Interior. There is also scenery and landscapes of the area near Reindeer Station.” “ The following events can be found in the album: unloading lumber off of boat; reindeer being herded from Alaska to Reindeer Station; snowmobile/tractor pulling a load; “cut-out” scenes and herding in corrals; digging meat cellar; reindeer in water; sled deer in training.” Complete Album: LAC MIKAN no.204916
Video ResourcesThese films bring alive the narrative of northern introduced diseases, in a way that an article cannot. Whereas the article describes the consequences of disease in more distanced, academic form, these two short films provide a synthesized version of some gripping stories of epidemic at the personal level. They can be shown in class, or assuming that students have access to high speed internet connections at home, assigned for students to watch on their own time. One is longer, the other shorter. Both explore the same themes in two different contexts, Labrador and the Northwest Territories. Possible relevant NFB films include: The Last Days of Okak, Anne Budgell & Nigel Markham,1985, 23 min 52 s.From the NFB’s description: Q. As you watch the video, keep an accounting of introductions other than disease. Were the impacts of these introduced material/cultural features trivial or profound? [For example, the rhubarb patch, the Moravian brass band, etc]. Or, for classes with more time, the longer and more detailed Coppermine is another excellent option. Coppermine, Ray Harper,1992,* 56 min 7 s.From the NFB’s description: Q. “There can be no doubt that the Coronation Gulf Eskimo [sic] need protection, for they are today free-er from serious disease than any other people in Canada.” What do you think of Vilhjalmur Stefansson’s plea for a medical authority to regulate who could and could not enter this area of the arctic? Can you understand the protestations of contemporary missionaries, etc? Q. Were there any differences between earlier epidemics, as described in Piper and Sandlos’ article, and the introduction of TB as depicted in the film? Q. Explore the competition for souls, as evidenced by the rivalry between the Anglican and Catholic Churches. Q. The film is highly critical of the Canadian federal government. Are there any elements of environmental injustice at play? If relevant for your particular class, compare with Tina Loo’s article (unit 6 in this series of teaching modules). GlossaryAs relates to the article only. Can be used to inform lecture material, or shared with students as a reading aid. Arctic circle: a parallel of latitude 66° 32′ N, north of which the sun does not rise during winter (perpetual darkness), and it does not set during summer (perpetual daylight). This occurs because the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted relative to the plane of its orbit around the sun. 60th parallel: Forms the present boundary between the southern provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and the northern territories, The Yukon, The Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Permafrost: Ground that remains frozen below 0°C, continuously, for at least two years. Far north/high arctic: Region of sparse vegetation, and the wildlife it supports is more limited because of colder summers (2-5° C warmest month), a short growing season (1.5-2.5 months), and low precipitation (100-200 mm). Boreal forest or Taiga: This vegetation region encircles the Northern Hemisphere between the treeless Arctic Tundra and the more southerly mid-latitude broad-leaved forest zones. The largest vegetation region in Canada, it experiences cool, short summers and long, cold winters. Subarctic: The northern third to half of the Taiga, that has a shorter summer and colder climate than more southerly regions. This portion of the Taiga is transitional to Arctic Tundra where trees and woody plants are almost entirely absent. Petit Nord: French, meaning the ‘little north’. The area between the Great Lakes, Lake Winnipeg, and the Hudson Bay Lowlands. Middle north: the boreal fringe in the northern areas of Canada’s central and western provinces. Great Lakes: a collection of five freshwater lakes in Northeastern North America. They drain into the Atlantic Ocean via the St Lawrence seaway. St Lawrence River Corridor: The region that lies alongside the waters of the St. Lawrence River as it flows northeast from Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence Prairie provinces: Specifically, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. ‘Half-breed’ Commission: The term refers to the Métis, descendants of mixed unions between people of First Nations and European heritage. The Commissioner, Charles Mair, was writing in support of a Northern Dominion as a defense against American expansion. Charles Mair in Dictionary of Canadian Biography. The Canadian Shield: a physiographic region, also known as the Precambrian Shield, or the Laurentian Plateau, being a very large area of exposed igneous and metamorphic rock, the oldest part of the North American crustal plate. It was the first part of the continent to be permanently raised above sea level, and represents half of Canada, most of Greenland, and part of the northern United States. Over much of the Shield there is only a thin layer of soil, and much exposed bedrock, caused by severe repeated glaciation that flattened mountains and scraped the rock clean. Manqué: French, meaning failed, missed, or lost. Alaska Highway: Constructed by the US Army during the Second World War, this American financed road connects Alaska to the rest of the US, through the Yukon and British Columbia. It was opened to the public in 1948, the Canadian portion having been turned over to the Canadian government in 1946. Mortality/morbidity: Mortality refers to the number of deaths in a population, whereas morbidity describes the number of individuals who are sick. HBC: The Hudson’s Bay Company, having been incorporated by Royal English charter in 1670, is the oldest commercial corporation in North America, and was at one time the largest land owner in the world. It operated as the de facto government in parts of North America, until those areas were relinquished to the Dominion government, or claimed and occupied by the United States. Originally a fur trading business, today “The Bay” operates retail stores in Canada and the United States. It is currently managed by the American private equity firm NRDC Equity Partners. Anti-scorbutic: effective in the prevention or relief of scurvy. Dominion government: In the text “Dominion” refers to the federal government of Canada. Specifically alludes to autonomous polities nominally under British sovereignty. The phrase “Dominion of Canada” was employed as the country’s name after 1867. Sami: The Sami people, also Sámi or Saami, are the indigenous people of arctic Scandinavia. Exogenous disease: A disease that enters a closed biological system from the external world (ie, outside the body). However, used here to refer to a newly introduced disease from elsewhere. Department of Indian Affairs: The federal department responsible for policies regarding Canadian aboriginal peoples, including First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Many thanks to:Dr. David Brownstein, Klahanie Research Ltd. (http://www.klahanieresearch.ca/) NiCHE (http://niche-canada.org/) Oxford University Press (oup.com) National Film Board of Canada (https://www.nfb.ca/) American Society for Environmental History (aseh.net) Forest History Society (foresthistory.org) |
What is Crosbys thesis in ecological imperialism?
Postagens relacionadas
direito autoral © 2024 comojogaruno Inc.
