The process of speech and language development in infants and children is complex and interrelated. For normal communication to develop, there must be an integration of anatomy and physiology of the speech systems, neurological development, and interactions that encourage infants and children for communication attempts. Language development includes both receptive and expressive language. (Owens, 2012) There are four theories that explain most of speech and language development: behavioral, nativistic, semantic-cognitive, and social-pragmatic. Behavioral Theory Behaviorists believe that language behaviors are learned by imitation, reinforcement, and copying adult language behaviors. They consider language to be determined not by experimentation or self-discovery, but by selective reinforcements from speech and language models, usually parents or other family members. Behaviorists focus on external forces that shape a child's language and see the child as a reactor to these forces. (Hulit, Howard, & Fahey, 2011) Imitation and Practice An example of selective reinforcement: A child says "mama" when his mother starts to pick him up. The mother is delighted to hear the child say this and gives the child a hug and kiss. The mother says "Mama, that's right, I'm Mama!" The mothers affectionate response makes it more likely that the child will say "mama" again. The mother's response to the child reinforced the behavior.Nativistic Theory Language Acquisition Device The main theorist associated with the nativist theory is Noam Chomsky. He came up with the idea of the language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD is a language organ that is hard-wired into our brains at birth. Once a child is exposed to language, the LAD activates. Click the button below to learn more about Chomskey's ideas. Semantic-Cognitive TheoryThe semantic-cognitive theory is a perspective of language development that emphasizes the interrelationship between language learning and cognition; that is, the meanings conveyed by a child's productions. Children demonstrate certain cognitive abilities as a corresponding language behavior emerges. (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). The semantic meaning that a person wants to communicate determines the words and word order (syntactic form) the person uses. For example, children know what they want to communicate (cognition) but do not always use the correct semantics or grammar. Also, children may not know the correct use of a word or understand that a word can have more than one meaning. Social-Pragmatic TheoryThe social-pragmatic theory considers communication as the basic function of language. This perspective is first seen in infant-caregiver interactions in which the caregiver responds to an infant's sounds and gestures. The prerequisites for the social-pragmatic theory are:1.) The infant must have a caregiver in close proximity to see, hear, or touch2.) The caregiver must provide the infant with basic physical needs such as food, warmth, and exploring the environment3.) The infant must develop an attachment to the caregiver4.) The infant and caregiver must be able to attend to the same objects or actions simultaneously5.) The infant and caregiver engage in turn-taking in both verbal and nonverbal behaviors (McLaughlin, 2006). In ideal parent-child communication, all of the five prerequisites are met in most interactions. The social-pragmatic perspective emphasizes the importance of the communicative partner's role; the partner's interpretation of what is said defines the results of the speech act. Behavioral Theory Nativistic Theory
Social-Pragmatic Theorythem Caregivers can make language easier in many ways, including playing social games that are stimulating and exciting for infants (e.g. peekaboo), taking turns in activities where the caregivers speaks and expects the infant to respond in a similar way, and reading books with young children. Clinicians can assess and treat a child's language impairments from a social-communicative and contextual perspective. The goal of therapy is to maximize the child's ability to communicate.
Although not necessarily considered a theory of language acquisition, clinicians need to be aware of cultural and diversity perspectives. Regardless of the theory of language development that is followed, children mature and grow within the context of their caregivers, whether they are parents, family members, or other members of the community. These people provide an environment with communication for the maturing child that reflects the range of meanings, values, perceptions, and beliefs of the cultures they are a part of. The United States is considered multicultural, like many other countries. Multicultural refers to a society that is characterized by a diversity of cultures, languages, traditions, religions, and values, as well as socioeconomic classes, sexual orientations, and ability levels where, ideally, individuals are respected and valued for their contributions to the society as a whole. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists need to be able to understand and appreciate the cultural-linguistic diversity of client populations in order to better serve them. (Owens, 2012) Dialects Regional Dilect Differences in the U.S.
Click the button below to hear America's dialects in action |