Predict whether each of the conditions would cause increased or decreased ventilation

Vieillard-Baron A, et al. Experts’ opinion on management of hemodynamics in ARDS patients: focus on the effects of mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(5):739–49.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Beitler JR, et al. Quantifying unintended exposure to high tidal volumes from breath stacking dyssynchrony in ARDS: the BREATHE criteria. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(9):1427–36.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Files DC, Sanchez MA, Morris PE. A conceptual framework: the early and late phases of skeletal muscle dysfunction in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care. 2015;19:266.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Petrof BJ, Hussain SN. Ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction: what have we learned? Curr Opin Crit Care. 2016;22(1):67–72.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
American Thoracic Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171(4):388–416.
Article Google Scholar
Vieillard-Baron A, Jardin F. The issue of dynamic hyperinflation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Eur Respir J Suppl. 2003;42:43s–7s.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gattinoni L, et al. Physical and biological triggers of ventilator-induced lung injury and its prevention. Eur Respir J Suppl. 2003;47:15s–25s.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Chiumello D, et al. Lung stress and strain during mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178(4):346–55.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Pelosi P, et al. Total respiratory system, lung, and chest wall mechanics in sedated-paralyzed postoperative morbidly obese patients. Chest. 1996;109(1):144–51.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Vawter DL, Matthews FL, West JB. Effect of shape and size of lung and chest wall on stresses in the lung. J Appl Physiol. 1975;39(1):9–17.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Akoumianaki E, et al. The application of esophageal pressure measurement in patients with respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;189(5):520–31.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Mauri T, et al. Esophageal and transpulmonary pressure in the clinical setting: meaning, usefulness and perspectives. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(9):1360–73.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Annat G, et al. Effect of PEEP ventilation on renal function, plasma renin, aldosterone, neurophysins and urinary ADH, and prostaglandins. Anesthesiology. 1983;58(2):136–41.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kuiper JW, et al. Mechanical ventilation and acute renal failure. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(6):1408–15.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bredenberg CE, Paskanik A, Fromm D. Portal hemodynamics in dogs during mechanical ventilation with positive end-expiratory pressure. Surgery. 1981;90(5):817–22.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Mutlu GM, Mutlu EA, Factor P. GI complications in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest. 2001;119(4):1222–41.

CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Putensen C, Wrigge H, Hering R. The effects of mechanical ventilation on the gut and abdomen. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2006;12(2):160–5.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gama de Abreu M, Guldner A, Pelosi P. Spontaneous breathing activity in acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2012;25(2):148–55.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Barach AL, Martin J, Eckman M. Positive pressure respiration and its application to the treatment of acute pulmonary edema. Ann Intern Med. 1938;12:754–95.
Article Google Scholar
Brochard L, Slutsky A, Pesenti A. Mechanical ventilation to minimize progression of lung injury in acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195(4):438–42.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Yoshida T, et al. Spontaneous breathing during lung-protective ventilation in an experimental acute lung injury model: high transpulmonary pressure associated with strong spontaneous breathing effort may worsen lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2012;40(5):1578–85.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Yoshida T, et al. Spontaneous effort causes occult pendelluft during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188(12):1420–7.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Yoshida T, et al. Spontaneous effort during mechanical ventilation: maximal injury with less positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(8):e678–88.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kumar A, et al. Pulmonary barotrauma during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 1973;1(4):181–6.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Pontoppidan H, Geffin B, Lowenstein E. Acute respiratory failure in the adult. 2. N Engl J Med. 1972;287(15):743–52.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Hayes DF, Lucas CE. Bilateral tube thoracostomy to preclude fatal tension pneumothorax in patients with acute respiratory insufficiency. Am Surg. 1976;42(5):330–1.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Zimmerman JE, Dunbar BS, Klingenmaier CH. Management of subcutaneous emphysema, pneumomediastinum, and pneumothorax during respirator therapy. Crit Care Med. 1975;3(2):69–73.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
de Latorre FJ, et al. Incidence of pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum in patients with aspiration pneumonia requiring ventilatory support. Chest. 1977;72(2):141–4.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Woodring JH. Pulmonary interstitial emphysema in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 1985;13(10):786–91.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gammon RB, Shin MS, Buchalter SE. Pulmonary barotrauma in mechanical ventilation. Patterns and risk factors. Chest. 1992;102(2):568–72.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Marini JJ, Culver BH. Systemic gas embolism complicating mechanical ventilation in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1989;110(9):699–703.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Dreyfuss D, et al. High inflation pressure pulmonary edema. Respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume, and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;137(5):1159–64.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Protti A, et al. Role of strain rate in the pathogenesis of ventilator-induced lung edema. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(9):e838–45.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gattinoni L, Pesenti A. The concept of “baby lung”. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(6):776–84.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
ARDS Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(18):1301–8.
Article Google Scholar
Hager DN, et al. Tidal volume reduction in patients with acute lung injury when plateau pressures are not high. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(10):1241–5.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Nuckton TJ, et al. Pulmonary dead-space fraction as a risk factor for death in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(17):1281–6.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Nin N, et al. Severe hypercapnia and outcome of mechanically ventilated patients with moderate or severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(2):200–8.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Webb HH, Tierney DF. Experimental pulmonary edema due to intermittent positive pressure ventilation with high inflation pressures. Protection by positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1974;110(5):556–65.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Kolobow T, et al. Severe impairment in lung function induced by high peak airway pressure during mechanical ventilation. An experimental study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;135(2):312–5.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Broccard A, et al. Prone positioning attenuates and redistributes ventilator-induced lung injury in dogs. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(2):295–303.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Nishimura M, et al. Body position does not influence the location of ventilator-induced lung injury. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26(11):1664–9.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Belperio JA, et al. Critical role for CXCR2 and CXCR2 ligands during the pathogenesis of ventilator-induced lung injury. J Clin Invest. 2002;110(11):1703–16.
Amato MB, et al. Driving pressure and survival in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(8):747–55.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Brochard L, et al. Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Multicenter Trail Group on Tidal Volume reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158(6):1831–8.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Stewart TE, et al. Evaluation of a ventilation strategy to prevent barotrauma in patients at high risk for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Pressure- and Volume-Limited Ventilation Strategy Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(6):355–61.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Brower RG, et al. Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial comparing traditional versus reduced tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(8):1492–8.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Fanelli V, et al. Feasibility and safety of low-flow extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal to facilitate ultra-protective ventilation in patients with moderate acute respiratory distress sindrome. Crit Care. 2016;20:36.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gattinoni L. Ultra-protective ventilation and hypoxemia. Crit Care. 2016;20(1):130.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Tobin MJ. Culmination of an era in research on the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(18):1360–1.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Protti A, et al. Lung stress and strain during mechanical ventilation: any safe threshold? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(10):1354–62.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Protti A, et al. Lung anatomy, energy load, and ventilator-induced lung injury. Intensive Care Med Exp. 2015;3(1):34.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Australia, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for 2009 influenza A(H1N1) acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA. 2009;302(17):1888–95.
Article Google Scholar
Grasso S, et al. ECMO criteria for influenza A (H1N1)-associated ARDS: role of transpulmonary pressure. Intensive Care Med. 2012;38(3):395–403.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Retamal J, et al. Open lung approach ventilation abolishes the negative effects of respiratory rate in experimental lung injury. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2016;60(8):1131–41.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Hotchkiss Jr JR, et al. Effects of decreased respiratory frequency on ventilator-induced lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161(2 Pt 1):463–8.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Cressoni M, et al. Mechanical power and development of ventilator-induced lung injury. Anesthesiology. 2016;124(5):1100–8.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Dreyfuss D, Ricard JD, Gaudry S. Did studies on HFOV fail to improve ARDS survival because they did not decrease VILI? On the potential validity of a physiological concept enounced several decades ago. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(12):2076–86.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Rich PB, et al. Effect of rate and inspiratory flow on ventilator-induced lung injury. J Trauma. 2000;49(5):903–11.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Maeda Y, et al. Effects of peak inspiratory flow on development of ventilator-induced lung injury in rabbits. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(3):722–8.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Garcia CS, et al. Pulmonary morphofunctional effects of mechanical ventilation with high inspiratory air flow. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(1):232–9.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Esteban A, et al. Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a 28-day international study. JAMA. 2002;287(3):345–55.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Villar J, et al. The ALIEN study: incidence and outcome of acute respiratory distress syndrome in the era of lung protective ventilation. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(12):1932–41.

Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bellani G, et al. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA. 2016;315(8):788–800.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Mead J, Takishima T, Leith D. Stress distribution in lungs: a model of pulmonary elasticity. J Appl Physiol. 1970;28(5):596–608.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cressoni M, et al. Lung inhomogeneity in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;189(2):149–58.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gattinoni L, et al. Ventilator-related causes of lung injury: the mechanical power. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(10):1567–75.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Marini JJ, Jaber S. Dynamic predictors of VILI risk: beyond the driving pressure. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(10):1597–600.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Guldner A, et al. The authors reply. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(3):e328–9.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Goebel U, et al. Flow-controlled expiration: a novel ventilation mode to attenuate experimental porcine lung injury. Br J Anaesth. 2014;113(3):474–83.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Schumann S, et al. Determination of respiratory system mechanics during inspiration and expiration by FLow-controlled EXpiration (FLEX): a pilot study in anesthetized pigs. Minerva Anestesiol. 2014;80(1):19–28.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gattinoni L, et al. Prone position in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Rationale, indications, and limits. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188(11):1286–93.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Guerin C, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(23):2159–68.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Agostoni E., Hyatt RE. Static behaviour of the respiratory system. In: Maklem PT, Mead J, Fishman AP. Handbook of physiology. MD: Bethesda; 1986. pp 113-130.
Brower RG, et al. Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(4):327–36.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Meade MO, et al. Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;299(6):637–45.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Briel M, et al. Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303(9):865–73.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

Page 2

	Positive pressure ventilation	Negative pressure ventilation
Spontaneous	Artificial
Respiratory system motor	Energy from ventilator generating the airway pressure (P aw)	Energy from muscular contraction generating muscular pressure (P musc)	Energy from device generating negative pressure (P neg)
Lung motor	Transpulmonary pressure (P L) generated by positive increase of P aw and pleural pressure (P pl)	Transpulmonary pressure (P L) generated by decrease of pleural pressure (P pl)	Transpulmonary pressure (P L) generated by decrease of pleural pressure (P pl)
Chest wall motor	Pleural pressure (P pl = P aw – P L)	Wall pressurea (P W = P musc – P pl)	Wall pressurea (P W = P neg – P pl)