Diffusion, also known as cultural diffusion, is a social process through which elements of culture spread from one society or social group to another, which means it is, in essence, a process of social change. It is also the process through which innovations are introduced into an organization or social group, sometimes called the diffusion of innovations. Things that are spread through diffusion include ideas, values, concepts, knowledge, practices, behaviors, materials, and symbols. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that cultural diffusion is the primary way through which modern societies developed the cultures that they have today. Further, they note that the process of diffusion is distinct from having elements of a foreign culture forced into a society, as was done through colonization. The study of cultural diffusion was pioneered by anthropologists who sought to understand how it was that the same or similar cultural elements could be present in numerous societies around the world long before the advent of communication tools. Edward Tylor, a British anthropologist who wrote during the mid-nineteenth century, posed the theory of cultural diffusion as an alternative to using the theory of cultural evolution to explain cultural similarities. Following Tylor, the German-American anthropologist Franz Boas developed a theory of cultural diffusion for explaining how the process works among areas that are close to each other, geographically speaking. These scholars observed that cultural diffusion happens when societies that have different ways of life come into contact with each other and that as they interact more and more, the rate of cultural diffusion between them increases. In the early 20th century, American sociologists Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, and Canadian sociologist Roderick Duncan McKenzie were members of the Chicago School of sociology, scholars in the 1920s and 1930s who studied urban cultures in Chicago and applied what they learned elsewhere. In their now-classic work "The City," published in 1925, they studied cultural diffusion from the standpoint of social psychology, which meant they focused on the motivations and social mechanisms that allow diffusion to occur. There are many different theories of cultural diffusion that have been offered by anthropologists and sociologists, but the elements common to them that can be considered general principles of cultural diffusion are as follows.
Some sociologists have paid particular attention to how the diffusion of innovations within a social system or social organization occurs, as opposed to cultural diffusion across different groups. In 1962, sociologist and communication theorist Everett Rogers wrote a book titled "Diffusion of Innovations," which laid the theoretical groundwork for the study of this process. According to Rogers, there are four key variables that influence the process of how an innovative idea, concept, practice, or technology is diffused through a social system.
These will work together to determine the speed and scale of diffusion, as well as whether or not the innovation is successfully adopted. The process of diffusion, according to Rogers, happens in five steps:
Rogers noted that, throughout the process, the social influence of certain individuals can play a significant role in determining the outcome. In part because of this, the study of the diffusion of innovations is of interest to people in the field of marketing. Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.
Cultural appropriation refers to the use of objects or elements of a non-dominant culture in a way that reinforces stereotypes or contributes to oppression and doesn't respect their original meaning or give credit to their source. It also includes the unauthorized use of parts of their culture (their dress, dance, etc.) without permission. In this way, cultural appropriation is a layered and nuanced phenomenon that many people may have trouble understanding and may not realize when they are doing it themselves. It can be natural to merge and blend cultures as people from different backgrounds come together and interact. In fact, many wonderful inventions and creations have been born from the merging of such cultures (such as country music). However, the line is drawn when a dominant cultural group makes use of elements of a non-dominant group in a way that the non-dominant group views as exploitative.
Cultural appropriation can be most easily recognized by asking this question of the non-dominant group: Does the use of this element of your culture in this way bother you? Taking a step backward, how do we define cultural appropriation? It helps to consider what is meant by each of the terms in the phrase, as well as some related terms that are important to understand. Culture refers to anything associated with a group of people based on their ethnicity, religion, geography, or social environment. This might include beliefs, traditions, language, objects, ideas, behaviors, customs, values, or institutions. It's not uncommon for culture to be thought of as belonging to particular ethnic groups. Appropriation refers to taking something that doesn't belong to you or your culture. In the case of cultural appropriation, it is an exchange that happens when a dominant group takes or "borrows" something from a minority group that has historically been exploited or oppressed. In this sense, appropriation involves a lack of understanding of or appreciation for the historical context that influences what is being taken. Taking a sacred object from a historically marginalized culture and producing it as part of a Halloween costume is one example. Cultural denigration is when someone adopts an element of a culture with the sole purpose of humiliating or putting down people of that culture. The most obvious example of this is blackface, which originated as a way to denigrate and dehumanize Black people by perpetuating negative stereotypes. Cultural appreciation, on the other hand, is the respectful borrowing of elements from another culture with an interest in sharing ideas and diversifying oneself. Examples would include learning martial arts from an instructor with an understanding of the practice from a cultural perspective or eating Indian food at an authentic Indian restaurant. When done correctly, cultural appreciation can result in deeper understanding and respect across cultures as well as creative hybrids that blend cultures together.
Appropriation
Appreciation
There are four main types of cultural appropriation:
Learning about the context of cultural appropriation is important for understanding why it is a problem. While some might not think twice about adopting a style from another culture, for example, the group with which the style originated may have historical experiences that make the person's actions insensitive to the group's past and current experience. For example, consider a White American wearing their hair in cornrows. While Black Americans have historically experienced discrimination because of protective hairstyles like cornrows, White Americans, as part of the dominant group in the U.S., can often "get away" with appropriating that same hairstyle and making it "trendy," all the while not understanding or acknowledging the experiences that contributed to its significance in Black culture in the first place. When considering examples of cultural appropriation, it's helpful to look at the types of items that can be a target. They include:
In the United States, the groups that are most commonly targeted in terms of cultural appropriation include Black Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic and Latinx Americans, and Native Americans. The following are some real-world examples of cultural appropriation to consider. In the 1950s, White musicians "invented" rock and roll; however, the musical style was appropriated from Black musicians who never received credit. In fact, music executives at the time chose to promote White performers over Black performers, reinforcing the idea that cultural appropriation involves a negative impact on a non-dominant group. In 2011, motivational entrepreneur James Arthur Ray was convicted of three counts of negligent homicide after the death of three participants in his pseudo sweat lodge. This is an extreme example of the cultural appropriation and misrepresentation of Native American traditions. Do you remember the "voguing" craze made popular by Madonna back in the 1990s? Voguing as a dance actually had its roots in the gay clubs of New York City and was pioneered by Black members of the LGBTQ+ community. Madonna defends her right to artistic expression, but the question remains—how many people still mistakenly think she invented voguing? There is a history of major sports teams in the United States and Canada being involved in the cultural appropriation of Indigenous cultures through their names and mascots. Past and present examples include the Chicago Blackhawks, Cleveland Indians, Washington Redskins, and Edmonton Eskimos. (The Redskins and Eskimos have since undergone name changes.)
"Redskin" is a derogatory term for Indigenous people, and the term "eskimo" has been rejected by the Inuit community. If you are unsure how to decide if something is cultural appropriation, here are some questions to ask yourself:
Explore these questions and always aim to show sensitivity when adopting elements from another culture. If you do realize that something you have done is wrong, accept it as a mistake and then work to change it and apologize for it.
If you aren't sure if something is considered cultural appropriation, you need to look no further than the reaction of the group from whom the cultural element was taken. You can avoid cultural appropriation by taking a few steps, such as these:
Cultural appropriation is the social equivalent of plagiarism with an added dose of denigration. It's something to be avoided at all costs, and something to educate yourself about. In addition to watching your own actions, it's important to be mindful of the actions of corporations and be choosy about how you spend your dollars as that is another way of supporting members of the non-dominant culture. Do what you can when you can as you learn to do better. |