What term describes the local currents that flow parallel to a shore and transport sediment?

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coastal landforms, any of the relief features present along any coast, the result of a combination of processes, sediments, and the geology of the coast itself.

The coastal environment of the world is made up of a wide variety of landforms manifested in a spectrum of sizes and shapes ranging from gently sloping beaches to high cliffs, yet coastal landforms are best considered in two broad categories: erosional and depositional. In fact, the overall nature of any coast may be described in terms of one or the other of these categories. It should be noted, however, that each of the two major landform types may occur on any given reach of coast.

The landforms that develop and persist along the coast are the result of a combination of processes acting upon the sediments and rocks present in the coastal zone. The most prominent of these processes involves waves and the currents that they generate, along with tides. Other factors that significantly affect coastal morphology are climate and gravity.

The most obvious of all coastal processes is the continual motion of the waves moving toward the beach. Waves vary considerably in size over time at any given location and also vary markedly from place to place. Waves interact with the ocean bottom as they travel into shallow water; as a result, they cause sediment to become temporarily suspended and available for movement by coastal currents. The larger the wave, the deeper the water in which this process takes place and the larger the particle that can be moved. Even small waves that are only a few tens of centimetres high can pick up sand as they reach the shore. Larger waves can move cobbles and rock material as large as boulders.

Generally, small waves cause sediment—usually sand—to be transported toward the coast and to become deposited on the beach. Larger waves, typically during storms, are responsible for the removal of sediment from the coast and its conveyance out into relatively deep water.

Waves erode the bedrock along the coast largely by abrasion. The suspended sediment particles in waves, especially pebbles and larger rock debris, have much the same effect on a surface as sandpaper does. Waves have considerable force and so may break up bedrock simply by impact.

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Waves usually approach the coast at some acute angle rather than exactly parallel to it. Because of this, the waves are bent (or refracted) as they enter shallow water, which in turn generates a current along the shore and parallel to it. Such a current is called a longshore current, and it extends from the shoreline out through the zone of breaking waves. The speed of the current is related to the size of the waves and to their angle of approach. Under rather quiescent conditions, longshore currents move only about 10–30 centimetres per second; however, under stormy conditions they may exceed one metre per second. The combination of waves and longshore current acts to transport large quantities of sediment along the shallow zone adjacent to the shoreline.

Because longshore currents are caused by the approaching and refracting waves, they may move in either direction along the coast, depending on the direction of wave approach. This direction of approach is a result of the wind direction, which is therefore the ultimate factor in determining the direction of longshore currents and the transport of sediment along the shoreline.

Although a longshore current can entrain sediment if it moves fast enough, waves typically cause sediment to be picked up from the bottom, and the longshore current transports it along the coast. In some locations there is quite a large volume of net sediment transport along the coast because of a dominance of one wind direction—and therefore wave direction—over another. This volume may be on the order of 100,000 cubic metres per year. Other locations may experience more of a balance in wave approach, which causes the longshore current and sediment transport in one direction to be nearly balanced by the same process in the other direction.

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Another type of coastal current caused by wave activity is the rip current (incorrectly called rip tide in popular usage). As waves move toward the beach, there is some net shoreward transport of water. This leads to a slight but important upward slope of the water level (setup), so that the absolute water level at the shoreline is a few centimetres higher than it is beyond the surf zone. This situation is an unstable one, and water moves seaward through the surf zone in an effort to relieve the instability of the sloping water. The seaward movement is typically confined to narrow pathways. In most cases, rip currents are regularly spaced and flow at speeds of up to several tens of centimetres per second. They can carry sediment and often are recognized by the plume of suspended sediment moving out through the surf zone. In some localities rip currents persist for months at the same site, whereas in others they are quite ephemeral.

2. Referring to Table 17.1, approximately what size of waves (amplitude and wavelength) would you expect with a 65 km/h wind blowing for 40 hours over 1,000 km of sea?

3. If the average wavelength of a series of waves is 100 m, at what depth of water will the waves start to feel the bottom, and how will that change their behaviour?

5. On this diagram, the waves (dashed blue lines) are approaching an irregular coast. The red arrows represent the energy of those waves, and one has been extended to show where that energy would hit the shore. Extend the other “energy lines” in a similar way, and comment on how this relates to erosion of this coastline.

7. How do we define the limits of the beach face, and what are some other terms used to describe this zone?

8. A spit is really just a beach that is only attached to the shore at one end. What conditions are necessary for the formation of a spit?

9. Barrier islands are common along the Atlantic coast of the U.S. as far north as Massachusetts. Why are there almost none in the northeastern U.S. or along the coasts of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland?

10. This diagram represents an island on the central coast of B.C. that has experienced 140 m of isostatic rebound since deglaciation, and has also been affected by the global eustatic sea-level rise over the same period. The dashed line marks sea level during glaciation. How much higher or lower should that line be now?

11. If a dam were to be built on the Fraser River near Hope, what would be the long-term implications for beaches in the Vancouver area? Explain why.