In order to continue enjoying our site, we ask that you confirm your identity as a human. Thank you very much for your cooperation.
World Health Organization and the United Nations Development Programme. Responding to non-communicable diseases during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020. Available from: //www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Non-communicable_diseases-Evidence-2020.1. Accessed 24 June 2021.
Google Scholar
Hamer M, Kivimäki M, Gale CR, Batty GD. Lifestyle risk factors, inflammatory mechanisms, and COVID-19 hospitalization: a community-based cohort study of 387,109 adults in UK. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;87:184–7. //doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.059.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Bambra C, Riordan R, Ford J, Matthews F. The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2020;74(11):964–8. //doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-214401.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Horton R. Offline: COVID-19 is not a pandemic. Lancet. 2020;396(10255):874. //doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32000-6.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The Global Health Observatory. Available from: //www.who.int/data/gho. Accessed 8 Nov 2021.
Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. GBD Results Tool. 2021. Available from: //ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool. Accessed 24 June 2021.
Google Scholar
Uddin R, Lee E-Y, Khan SR, Tremblay MS, Khan A. Clustering of lifestyle risk factors for non-communicable diseases in 304,779 adolescents from 89 countries: a global perspective. Prev Med An Int J Devoted to Pract Theory. 2020;131:8. //doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.105955.
Article Google Scholar
Ford ND, Patel SA, Narayan KMV. Obesity in low- and middle-income countries: burden, drivers, and emerging challenges. Annu Rev Public Health. 2017;38(1):145–64. //doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044604.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018.
Google Scholar
Azarpazhooh MR, Morovatdar N, Avan A, Phan TG, Divani AA, Yassi N, et al. COVID-19 pandemic and burden of non-communicable diseases: an ecological study on data of 185 countries. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2020;29(9):1–9. //doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105089.
Article Google Scholar
Bloom DE, Cadarette D. Infectious disease threats in the twenty-first century: strengthening the global response. Front Immunol. 2019;10:549. //doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00549.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hamer M, O’Donovan G, Stamatakis E. Lifestyle risk factors, obesity and infectious disease mortality in the general population: linkage study of 97,844 adults from England and Scotland. Prev Med (Baltim). 2019;123:65–70. //doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.002.
Article Google Scholar
Baik I, Curhan GC, Rimm EB, Bendich A, Willett WC, Fawzi WW. A prospective study of age and lifestyle factors in relation to community-acquired pneumonia in US men and women. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(20):3082–8. //doi.org/10.1001/archinte.160.20.3082.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Creswell J, Raviglione M, Ottmani S, Migliori GB, Uplekar M, Blanc L, et al. Tuberculosis and noncommunicable diseases: neglected links and missed opportunities. Eur Respir J. 2011;37(5):1269–82. //doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00084310.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Majid E, Elio R. Behavioral and dietary risk factors for noncommunicable diseases. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(10):954–64. //doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1203528.
Article CAS Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Disease outbreaks. 2021. Available from: //www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/en/. Accessed 24 June 2021.
Google Scholar
Wimalasena NN, Chang-Richards A, Wang KI-K, Dirks KN. Housing risk factors associated with respiratory disease: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(6):2815. //doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062815.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Simou E, Britton J, Leonardi-Bee J. Alcohol consumption and risk of tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2018;22(11):1277–85. //doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.18.0092.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Mohidem NA, Hashim Z, Osman M, Shaharudin R, Farrah MM, Makeswaran P. Demographic, socio-economic and behavior as risk factors of tuberculosis in Malaysia: a systematic review of the literature. Rev Environ Health. 2018;33(4):407–21. //doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2018-0026.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Rumbwere Dube BN, Marshall TP, Ryan RP, Omonijo M. Predictors of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in primary care among adults living in developed countries: a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2018;7(1):82. //doi.org/10.1186/s13643-018-0744-3.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Simou E, Britton J, Leonardi-Bee J. Alcohol and the risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2018;8(8):e022344. //doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022344.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Samokhvalov AV, Irving HM, Rehm J. Alcohol consumption as a risk factor for pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138(12):1789–95. //doi.org/10.1017/S0950268810000774.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cruickshank HC, Jefferies JM, Clarke SC. Lifestyle risk factors for invasive pneumococcal disease: a systematic review. BMJ Open. 2014;4(6):e005224. //doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005224.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Pimpin L, Drumright LN, Kruijshaar ME, Abubakar I, Rice B, Delpech V, et al. Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in European Union and European economic area countries. Eur Respir J. 2011;38(6):1382–92. //doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00198410.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Zhao Y, Luo T, Tucker JD, Wong WCW. Risk factors of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in China: a systematic review of reviews. PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0140426. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140426.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Goel A, Seguy N, Aggarwal R. Burden of hepatitis C virus infection in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;34(2):321–9. //doi.org/10.1111/jgh.14466.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Mahmud S, Akbarzadeh V, Abu-Raddad LJ. The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Iran: systematic review and meta-analyses. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):1. //doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18296-9.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Al Kanaani Z, Mahmud S, Kouyoumjian SP, Abu-Raddad LJ. The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Pakistan: systematic review and meta-analyses. R Soc Open Sci. 2018;5(4):180257. //doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180257.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Fadlalla FA, Mohamoud YA, Mumtaz GR, Abu-Raddad LJ. The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in the Maghreb region: systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0121873. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121873.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Falagas M, Koletsi PK, Baskouta E, Rafailidis PI, Dimopoulos G, Karageorgopoulos DE. Pandemic a(H1N1) 2009 influenza: review of the southern hemisphere experience. Epidemiol Infect. 2011;139(1):27–40. //doi.org/10.1017/S0950268810002037.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Phung DT, Wang Z, Rutherford S, Huang C, Chu C. Body mass index and risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2013;14(10):839–57. //doi.org/10.1111/obr.12055.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Nie W, Zhang Y, Jee SH, Jung KJ, Li B, Xiu Q. Obesity survival paradox in pneumonia: a meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2014;12(1):61. //doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-12-61.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Baskaran V, Murray RL, Hunter A, Lim WS, McKeever TM. Effect of tobacco smoking on the risk of developing community acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019;14(7):e0220204. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220204.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Jafta N, Jeena PM, Barregard L, Naidoo RN. Childhood tuberculosis and exposure to indoor air pollution: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2015;19(5):596–602. //doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.14.0686.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dogar OF, Pillai N, Safdar N, Shah SK, Zahid R, Siddiqi K. Second-hand smoke and the risk of tuberculosis: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2015;143(15):3158–72. //doi.org/10.1017/S0950268815001235.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Patra J, Bhatia M, Suraweera W, Morris SK, Patra C, Gupta PC, et al. Exposure to second-hand smoke and the risk of tuberculosis in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 observational studies. PLoS Med. 2015;12(6):e1001835. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001835.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Lee C-C, Middaugh NA, Howie SRC, Ezzati M. Association of secondhand smoke exposure with pediatric invasive bacterial disease and bacterial carriage: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2010;7(12):e1000374. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000374.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Song Y, Ren F, Sun D, Wang M, Baker JS, István B, et al. Benefits of exercise on influenza or pneumonia in older adults: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(8):2655. //doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082655.
Article CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
Waitt CJ, Squire SB. A systematic review of risk factors for death in adults during and after tuberculosis treatment. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2011;15(7):871–85. //doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.10.0352.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Samuels JP, Sood A, Campbell JR, Khan FA, Johnston JC. Comorbidities and treatment outcomes in multidrug resistant tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):1–13. //doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-23344-z.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Rajendran M, Zaki RA, Aghamohammadi N. Contributing risk factors towards the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Malaysia: a systematic review. Tuberculosis. 2020;122:1. //doi.org/10.1016/j.tube.2020.101925.
Article Google Scholar
Azhar G. DOTS for TB relapse in India: a systematic review. Lung India. 2012;29(2):147–53. //doi.org/10.4103/0970-2113.95320.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Torres NMC, Rodríguez JJQ, Andrade PSP, Arriaga MB, Netto EM. Factors predictive of the success of tuberculosis treatment: a systematic review with meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019;14(12):e0226507. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226507.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Ragan EJ, Kleinman MB, Sweigart B, Gnatienko N, Parry CD, Horsburgh CR, et al. The impact of alcohol use on tuberculosis treatment outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2020;24(1):73–82. //doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.19.0080.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Azar MM, Springer SA, Meyer JP, Altice FL. A systematic review of the impact of alcohol use disorders on HIV treatment outcomes, adherence to antiretroviral therapy and health care utilization. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;112(3):178–93. //doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.06.014.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Velloza J, Kemp CG, Aunon FM, Ramaiya MK, Creegan E, Simoni JM. Alcohol use and antiretroviral therapy non-adherence among adults living with HIV/AIDS in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS Behav. 2020;24(6):1727–42. //doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02716-0.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ge S, Sanchez M, Nolan M, Liu T, Savage CL. Is alcohol use associated with increased risk of developing adverse health outcomes among adults living with human immunodeficiency virus: a systematic review. J Addict Nurs. 2018;29(2):96–118. //doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000220.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Aisyah DN, Shallcross L, Hully AJ, O’Brien A, Hayward A. Assessing hepatitis C spontaneous clearance and understanding associated factors—a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Viral Hepat. 2018;25(6):680–98. //doi.org/10.1111/jvh.12866.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sublette VA, Douglas MW, McCaffery K, George J, Perry KN. Psychological, lifestyle and social predictors of hepatitis C treatment response: a systematic review. Liver Int. 2013;33(6):894–903. //doi.org/10.1111/liv.12138.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Peacock A, Tran LT, Larney S, Stockings E, Santo T, Jones H, et al. All-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with regular or problematic cocaine use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2021;116(4):725–42. //doi.org/10.1111/add.15239.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Hajarizadeh B, Cunningham EB, Valerio H, Martinello M, Law M, Janjua NZ, et al. Hepatitis C reinfection after successful antiviral treatment among people who inject drugs: a meta-analysis. J Hepatol. 2020;72(4):643–57. //doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2019.11.012.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Latham NH, Doyle JS, Palmer AY, Vanhommerig JW, Agius P, Goutzamanis S, et al. Staying hepatitis C negative: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cure and reinfection in people who inject drugs. Liver Int. 2019;39(12):2244–60. //doi.org/10.1111/liv.14152.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Chen HY, Shen DT, Ji DZ, Han PC, Zhang WM, Ma JF, et al. Prevalence and burden of hepatitis D virus infection in the global population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gut. 2019;68(3):512–21. //doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316601.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Fezeu L, Julia C, Henegar A, Bitu J, Hu FB, Grobbee DE, et al. Obesity is associated with higher risk of intensive care unit admission and death in influenza a (H1N1) patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2011;12(8):653–9. //doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00864.x.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Mertz D, Kim TH, Johnstone J, Lam P-P, Science M, Kuster SP, et al. Populations at risk for severe or complicated influenza illness: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013;347(aug23 1):f5061. //doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f5061.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Coleman BL, Fadel SA, Fitzpatrick T, Thomas S. Risk factors for serious outcomes associated with influenza illness in high- versus low- and middle-income countries: systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2018;12(1):22–9. //doi.org/10.1111/irv.12504.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Peres KC, Riera R, Martimbianco ALC, Ward LS, Cunha LL. Body Mass Index and Prognosis of COVID-19 Infection. A Systematic Review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2020;11:562.
Article Google Scholar
de Carvalho Sales-Peres SH, de Azevedo-Silva LJ, RCS B, de Carvalho Sales-Peres M, da Silvia Pinto AC, Santiago Junior JF. Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and the risk of obesity for critically illness and ICU admitted: Meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2020;14(5):389–97. //doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2020.07.007.
Article Google Scholar
de Siqueira JVV, Almeida LG, Zica BO, Brum IB, Barceló A, de Siqueira Galil AG. Impact of obesity on hospitalizations and mortality, due to COVID-19: a systematic review. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2020;14(5):398–403. //doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2020.07.005.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Földi M, Farkas N, Kiss S, Zádori N, Váncsa S, Szakó L, et al. Obesity is a risk factor for developing critical condition in COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2020;21(10):e13095. //doi.org/10.1111/obr.13095.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Wang EY, Arrazola RA, Mathema B, Ahluwalia IB, Mase SR. The impact of smoking on tuberculosis treatment outcomes: a meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2020;24(2):170–5. //doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.19.0002.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Wang M-G, Huang W-W, Wang Y, Zhang Y-X, Zhang M-M, Wu S-Q, et al. Association between tobacco smoking and drug-resistant tuberculosis. Infect Drug Resist. 2018;11:873–87. //doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S164596.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Farsalinos K, Barbouni A, Poulas K, Polosa R, Caponnetto P, Niaura R, et al. Current smoking, former smoking, and adverse outcome among hospitalized COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2020;11:1–14. //doi.org/10.1177/2040622320935765.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Del Sole F, Farcomeni A, Loffredo L, Carnevale R, Menichelli D, Vicario T, et al. Features of severe COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Investig. 2020;50(10):1–7. //doi.org/10.1111/eci.13378.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Alqahtani JS, Oyelade T, Aldhahir AM, Alghamdi SM, Almehmadi M, Alqahtani AS, et al. Prevalence, severity and mortality associated with COPD and smoking in patients with COVID-19: a rapid systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2020;15(5):e0233147. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233147.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gülsen A, Yigitbas BA, Uslu B, Drömann D, Kilinc O. The effect of smoking on COVID-19 symptom severity: systematic review and meta-analysis. Pulm Med. 2020;2020:7590207–11. //doi.org/10.1155/2020/7590207.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Zhao Q, Meng M, Kumar R, Wu Y, Huang J, Lian N, et al. The impact of COPD and smoking history on the severity of COVID-19: a systemic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):1915–21. //doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25889.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sanchez-Ramirez DC, Mackey D. Underlying respiratory diseases, specifically COPD, and smoking are associated with severe COVID-19 outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir Med. 2020;171:106096. //doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2020.106096.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Sonego M, Pellegrin MC, Becker G, Lazzerini M. Risk factors for mortality from acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in children under five years of age in low and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS One. 2015;10(1):17. //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116380.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Giusti A, Penco G, Pioli G. Vitamin D deficiency in HIV-infected patients: a systematic review. Nutr Diet Suppl. 2011;3:101–11. //doi.org/10.2147/NDS.S6921.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Metelli S, Chaimani A. Challenges in meta-analyses with observational studies. Evid Based Ment Heal. 2020;23(2):83–7 Available from: //ebmh.bmj.com/content/23/2/83.abstract.
Article Google Scholar
Popay J, Roberts H, Sowden A, Petticrew M, Arai L, Rodgers M, et al. Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic Reviews. A Product from the ESRC Methods Programme. Version 1. 2006. Available from: //www.lancaster.ac.uk/media/lancaster-university/content-assets/documents/fhm/dhr/chir/NSsynthesisguidanceVersion1-April2006.pdf. Accessed 24 June 2021.
Google Scholar
Fusar-Poli P, Radua J. Ten simple rules for conducting umbrella reviews. Evid Based Ment Health. 2018;21(3):95–100. //doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2018-300014.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Pussegoda K, Turner L, Garritty C, Mayhew A, Skidmore B, Stevens A, et al. Identifying approaches for assessing methodological and reporting quality of systematic reviews: a descriptive study. Syst Rev. 2017;6(1):117. //doi.org/10.1186/s13643-017-0507-6.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Qiu F, Liang C-L, Liu H, Zeng Y-Q, Hou S, Huang S, et al. Impacts of cigarette smoking on immune responsiveness: up and down or upside down? Oncotarget. 2017;8(1):268–84. //doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.13613.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Díaz LE, Montero A, González-Gross M, Vallejo AI, Romeo J, Marcos A. Influence of alcohol consumption on immunological status: a review. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002;56(S3):S50–3. //doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601486.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sattar N, McInnes IB, McMurray JJV. Obesity is a risk factor for severe COVID-19 infection: multiple potential mechanisms. Circulation. 2020;142(1):4–6. //doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047659.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Andreasson S, Chikritzhs T, Dangardt F, Holder H, Naimi T, Sherk A, et al. Alcohol and society 2021: alcohol and the coronavirus pandemic: individual, societal and policy perspectives. Stockholm: Medicine, SIGHT, Movendi International & IOGT-NTO; 2021.
Google Scholar
Trivedi GY, Saboo B. The risk factors for immune system impairment and the need for lifestyle changes. J Soc Heal Diabetes. 2020;8(01):025–8. //doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1715778.
Article Google Scholar
Pacifici R, Zuccaro P, Pichini S, Roset PN, Poudevida S, Farré M, et al. Modulation of the immune system in cannabis users. JAMA. 2003;289(15):1929–31. //doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.15.1929-a.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Friedman H, Eisenstein TK. Neurological basis of drug dependence and its effects on the immune system. J Neuroimmunol. 2004;147(1-2):106–8. //doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.10.022.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pandrea I, Happel KI, Amedee AM, Bagby GJ, Nelson S. Alcohol’s role in HIV transmission and disease progression. Alcohol Res Heal. 2010;33:203–18.
Google Scholar
Vas P, Hopkins D, Feher M, Rubino F, Whyte M. Diabetes, obesity and COVID −19: a complex interplay. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2020;22(10):1892–6. //doi.org/10.1111/dom.14134.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Poirier P, Alpert MA, Fleisher LA, Thompson PD, Sugerman HJ, Burke LE, et al. Cardiovascular evaluation and management of severely obese patients undergoing surgery. Circulation. 2009;120(1):86–95. //doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192575.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gonzalez A, Barinas J, O’Cleirigh C. Substance use: impact on adherence and HIV medical treatment. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2011;8(4):223–34. //doi.org/10.1007/s11904-011-0093-5.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Poortinga W. The prevalence and clustering of four major lifestyle risk factors in an English adult population. Prev Med (Baltim). 2007;44(2):124–8. //doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.10.006.
Article Google Scholar
Maher L, Jalaludin B, Chant KG, Jayasuriya R, Sladden T, Kaldor JM, et al. Incidence and risk factors for hepatitis C seroconversion in injecting drug users in Australia. Addiction. 2006;101(10):1499–508. //doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01543.x.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Moitra E, Anderson BJ, Herman DS, Hayaki J, Pinkston MM, Kim HN, et al. Examination of using alcohol to cope, depressive symptoms, and perceived social support in persons with HIV and Hepatitis C. AIDS Care. 2020 Oct;32(10):1238–45. //doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2020.1734177.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Room R. Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005;24(2):143–55. //doi.org/10.1080/09595230500102434.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Fazel S, Bains P, Doll H. Substance abuse and dependence in prisoners: a systematic review. Addiction. 2006;101(2):181–91. //doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01316.x.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Story A, Murad S, Roberts W, Verheyen M, Hayward AC. Tuberculosis in London: the importance of homelessness. Problem drug use and prison. Thorax. 2007;62(8):667–71. //doi.org/10.1136/thx.2006.065409.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Berbudi A, Rahmadika N, Tjahjadi AI, Ruslami R. Type 2 diabetes and its impact on the immune system. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2020;16(5):442–9. //doi.org/10.2174/1573399815666191024085838.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Clark A, Jit M, Warren-Gash C, Guthrie B, Wang HHX, Mercer SW, et al. Global, regional, and national estimates of the population at increased risk of severe COVID-19 due to underlying health conditions in 2020: a modelling study. Lancet Glob Heal. 2020;8(8):e1003–17. //doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30264-3.
Article Google Scholar
Fan VY, Jamison DT, Summers LH. Pandemic risk: how large are the expected losses? Bull World Health Organ. 2018;96(2):129–34. //doi.org/10.2471/BLT.17.199588.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Nikoloski Z, Alqunaibet AM, Alfawaz RA, Almudarra SS, Herbst CH, El-Saharty S, et al. Covid-19 and non-communicable diseases: evidence from a systematic literature review. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1068. Available from. //doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11116-w.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Xie Y, Hepatitis B. Virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2017;1018:11–21. //doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5765-6_2.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Global status report on noncommunicable diseases 2010. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011.
Google Scholar
Islam SMS, Purnat TD, Phuong NTA, Mwingira U, Schacht K, Fröschl G. Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in developing countries: a symposium report. Global Health. 2014;10:81.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Kostova D, Chaloupka FJ, Frieden TR, Henning K, Paul J, Osewe PL, et al. Noncommunicable disease risk factors in developing countries: policy perspectives. Prev Med (Baltim). 2017;105:S1–3. //doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.09.027.
Article Google Scholar
Kostova D, Husain M, Sugerman D, Hong Y, Saraiya M, Keltz J, et al. Synergies between communicable and noncommunicable disease programs to enhance global health security. Emerg Infect Dis J. 2017;23(13):S40–467. //doi.org/10.3201/eid2313.170581.
Article Google Scholar
Remais JV, Zeng G, Li G, Tian L, Engelgau MM. Convergence of non-communicable and infectious diseases in low- and middle-income countries. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):221–7. //doi.org/10.1093/ije/dys135.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Marmot M, Bell R. Social determinants and non-communicable diseases: time for integrated action. BMJ. 2019;364:10–2. //doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l251.
Article Google Scholar
Hosseinpoor AR, Bergen N, Kunst A, Harper S, Guthold R, Rekve D, et al. Socioeconomic inequalities in risk factors for non communicable diseases in low-income and middle-income countries: results from the world health survey. BMC Public Health. 2012;12(1):912. //doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-912.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Allen L, Williams J, Townsend N, Mikkelsen B, Roberts N, Foster C, et al. Socioeconomic status and non-communicable disease behavioural risk factors in low-income and lower-middle-income countries: a systematic review. Lancet Glob Heal. 2017;5(3):e277–89. //doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30058-X.
Article Google Scholar
Caul S. Deaths involving COVID-19 by local area and socioeconomic deprivation : deaths occurring between 1 March and 31 July 2020. 2020. Available from: //www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/deathsinvolvingcovid19bylocalareasanddeprivation/deathsoccurringbetween1marchand31july2020. Accessed 24 June 2021.
Google Scholar
Knobloch K, Yoon U, Vogt PM. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement and publication bias. J Cranio-Maxillofacial Surg. 2011;39(2):91–2. //doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2010.11.001.
Article Google Scholar
Sallis R, Young DR, Tartof SY, Sallis JF, Sall J, Li Q, et al. Physical inactivity is associated with a higher risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes: a study in 48 440 adult patients. Br J Sports Med. 2021;0:1–8.
Google Scholar
Page 2
Alcohol as a risk factor | ||||||
TB | [18] | Any alcohol use or higher amounts | No alcohol or lower amounts | OR 1.90 (1.63–2.23) | 44 | ↑ |
[19] | Alcohol consumption | N/A | Unclear | – | ||
HIV | [20] | Binge drinking or alcohol misuse | N/A | 2 | ↑ | |
Pneumonia | [21] | Any alcohol use or higher amounts | No alcohol or lower amounts | RR 1.83 (1.30–2.57) | 14 | ↑ |
[22] | AUD | No AUD | RR 8.22 (4.85–13.95) | 2 | ↑ | |
IBD (IPD) | [23] | Alcohol consumption | N/A | 6 | ↑ | |
Illicit drug use as a risk factor | ||||||
TB | [19] | Drug abuse | – | Unclear | – | |
[24] | Injection drug use | – | Unclear | ↑ | ||
HIV | [20] | Injecting drugs, smoking crack cocaine | – | 7 | ↑ | |
[25] | Illicit drug use | – | 7 | ↑ | ||
[24] | Injection drug use | – | Unclear | ↑ | ||
HCV | [26] | PWID | Community based studies and blood donors | Prevalence of HCV: | ↑ | |
PWID 44.71% (37.5–52.03) | 46 | |||||
Community 0.85% (0.00–3.98) | 4 | |||||
Blood donors 0.44% (0.40–0.49) | 211 | |||||
[27] | PWID | General population | Prevalence of HCV: | ↑ | ||
PWID 52.2% (46.9–57.5) | 56 | |||||
General pop. 0.3% (0.2–0.4) | 122 | |||||
[28] | PWID | General population | Prevalence of HCV: | ↑ | ||
PWID 53.6% (36.2–70.6) | 15 | |||||
General pop. 6.2% (5.7–6.7) | 148 | |||||
[29] | PWID | – | 7 | ↑ | ||
Obesity as a risk factor | ||||||
Influenza | [30] | Obesity and morbid obesity | – | 7 | ↑ | |
Pneumonia | [31] | Obesity (BMI: 30–39.9 kg/m2) | Normal weight | CAP: RR 1.03 (CI 0.8–1.3) | 10 | ↑ |
Influenza related: RR 1.31 (1.05–1.63) | 10 | |||||
Nosocomial: RR 1.26 (0.80–1.98) | 5 | |||||
[32] | Overweight and obesity | Normal weight | RR 1.33 (95% CI 1.04–1.71) | 13 | ↑ | |
Smoking as a risk factor | ||||||
HIV | [20] | Current smoking | – | 1 | ↑ | |
Pneumonia | [33] | a) Current smoking | Never smokers | a) OR 2.17 (1.70–2.76) | 13 | ↑ |
b) Ever smoked | b) OR 2.31 (1.99–2.69) | 13 | ||||
IBD (IPD) | [23] | Current or former smoking | – | 6 | ↑ | |
Second-hand smoke as a risk factor | ||||||
TB | [34] | Exposure to ETS | No exposure to ETS | TB infection (children): OR 1.9 (0.9–2.9) | 3 | ↑ |
TB disease (children): OR 2.8 (0.9–4.8) | 5 | |||||
[35] | Exposure to SHS | No exposure to SHS | TB infection (children): RR 1.19 (0.90–1.57) | 6 | ↑— | |
TB disease: RR 1.59 (1.11–2.27) | 6 | |||||
[36] | Exposure to SHS | No exposure to SHS | TB infection: RR 1.67 (1.12–2.48) and adjusting for age/SES, RR 1.11 (0.90–1.57) | 6 | – | |
TB disease: RR 1.96 (1.37–2.80) and adjusting for age/SES, RR 2.13 (1.18–3.83) | 12 | |||||
Pneumonia | [33] | Exposure to ECS | No exposure to ECS | Aged 65+: OR 1.64 (1.17–2.30) | 2 | ↑— |
All ages: OR 1.13 (0.94–1.36) | 5 | |||||
IBD | [37] | Exposure to SHS | No exposure to SHS | IMD: OR 2.02 (1.52–2.69) | 16 | ↑— |
IHD: OR 1.22 (0.93–1.62) and | 12 | |||||
IHD (pre-schoolers) OR 1.46 (1.19–1.81) | 9 | |||||
IPD: OR 1.21 (0.69–2.14) | 4 | |||||
Physical inactivity as a risk factor | ||||||
Influenza Pneumonia | [38] | Lack of prolonged, moderate aerobic exercise | – | 7 | ↑ |
- a Number of studies for either the meta-analysis or (for narrative reviews) the risk factor. b Conclusion statements are included in Supplementary file 2. Effect direction is based on conclusions: ↑ = increased risk; ↓ = decreased risk; — = no association. OR Odds ratio, RR Relative risk, TB Tuberculosis, HIV Human immunodeficiency virus, HCV Hepatitis C virus, IBD Invasive bacterial disease, IPD Invasive pneumococcal disease, IMD Invasive meningococcal disease, IHD Invasive Hib disease, CAP Community acquired pneumonia, AUD Alcohol use disorder, BMI Body mass index, SHS Second-hand smoke, ETS Environmental tobacco smoke, ECS Environmental cigarette smoke, PWID People who inject drugs